The Double Negative

by Bill Ball & Tony Scott

The use of the double negative for emphasis is, as we say, as old as the hills; and it was used in this way centuries ago much more frequently than it is today. But what is a double negative and why is it now regarded as an error? The easiest way to answer these questions is to give a few simple examples and then say why they are wrong.

1. I don't want no lessons from you.
2. I shouldn't be surprised if it didn't rain.
3. He didn't say nothing.

In sentence 1. 'don't and 'no' are both negatives;
in sentence 2. 'shouldn't' and 'didn't' are both negatives;
in sentence 3. 'didn't' and 'nothing' are both negatives.

In English, as in mathematics, we now regard two negatives as making a positive, with the result that each of the sentences quoted has the opposite meaning to the one intended:

'I want lessons from you'.
'I should be surprised if it rained'.
'He said something'.

It should be noted that in the following sentence (and in many sentences like it) the double negatives, 'not' and 'unnoticed', are perfectly acceptable because they make a positive that is intended.
I do not want to go unnoticed. (I want to be noticed.)

A Guide to Business Writing (part 4)

A Guide to Business Writing (Contd.)

 

6. Memos

 

Purpose

The purpose of a memo is to communicate as briefly as possible, so that action will follow as quickly as possible. It cannot do this effectively unless its subject and intention are immediately obvious to the receiver.
The importance of memos

The memo is essential in any organisation. Messages need to be sent from one person to another; giving instructions, requesting information, confirming arrangements; a memo is often used for these functions. They may be handwritten on pre-printed memo forms or may be sent by hand, internal mail or e-mail.

The memo is a form of communication used within the organisation. It is not sent to anyone outside the organisation, i.e. clients, customers, business associates.

Memos are important. Take as much care with their composition as with any other item of internal or external communication. For certain specific purposes, memos are usually better than telephone calls or face-to-face communication, for example:

• to transmit exactly the same information to several people;
• to confirm the time, date and place of a meeting to a number of people who are to be involved;
• to put on record the information, policies or decisions reached at a meeting or conference;
• to confirm, as a matter of record, a decision or agreement;
• to transmit information, policies or directives to an individual.

Topic

A memo should contain information relating to one topic only. Do not combine messages on several topics in a single memo. We are selective in the attention we give to information and we prioritise. If more than one topic is included, there is a risk of paying attention to, and acting on, the information in one part of the memo and ignoring the rest.

Memos which are a permanent record need to be filed. Where do you file a memo which covers several topics? You either need elaborate cross-referencing and indexing, or several photocopies. Keep to the principle of one memo for each topic.

The practice of sending one e-mail covering several memo topics should be avoided. It causes confusion.

Sequencing

A memo should present information in a sequence that is easy and logical for the reader to understand. There should be:

an introductory sentence/paragraph stating the purpose of the memo and enabling the reader to focus attention on the topic;
the main points set out in simple direct sentences, using numbers or bullet points. Longer memos should be set out in clear paragraphs, each dealing with a specific aspect of the topic;
a concluding sentence/paragraph identifying what action the reader needs to take about the information, and when.

All memos should:

• give date and reference number (where applicable);
• indicate sender and recipient;
• give subject headings;
• deal with each consecutive point in a separate paragraph;
• indicate clearly what action the memo requires;
• indicate where appropriate who is responsible for carrying this out.

7. Letters

There are many ways of transmitting the written word - on paper by 'snail mail'; telephonically by fax - or even by 'text'; or electronically by e-mail. But whatever method is used the principles of good writing always apply. Good letter writing can be quickly learned. There is much less space in a letter than in a report, for instance, so say it as clearly as you can. That means following the rules on use of words, length of sentences and paragraphs, correct punctuation and grammar.

To identify the reader is easier, because you know to whom you are writing. You can adapt your style to their needs. However, if you receive a letter in old-fashioned pompous 'officialese' it does not mean that you have to respond similarly. Write back in a clear conversational style - show them a good example! So get to know your reader - watch for their reaction.

But beware - sometimes it is tactful to avoid part of the truth, and it may be prudent not to be too blunt. Letters may offend a reader if too clear, concise, simple and direct. On the other hand, excessive brevity could be rude or disturbing.

The key to good letter writing is courtesy.

• Always answer letters promptly.
• Get your correspondent's name correct - with the right spelling.
• Get their titles right.
• Be considerate and sincere.

The five 'Cs'

recognise the importance of the relationship between purpose, reader and language and

• are prepared to be guided by the Five 'Cs' you will have an excellent chance of achieving readability. This is the quality which makes a reader want to go on reading, understanding and being influenced by all that has been written. So:

Be clear. Avoid ambiguities; use correct punctuation; use words tidily; place adjectives and adverbs in the right context.

Be concise. Brevity means selecting and assembling the right words; eliminate 'padding' caused by meaningless and hackneyed cliches, cut out jargon and 'commercialese'!

Be correct. Ensure your facts, figures, data, detail, and all information is correct. In letter construction be sure that grammar, punctuation and especially spelling are correct.

Be complete. Provide all the information/answers to satisfy both the reader and the purpose of the letter. Also, if there are enclosures - enclose them!

Be courteous. Choose and use words to create the right tone which will convey the 'image' to the reader of a warm, helpful, interested human being!

8. Faxes and e-mails

Fax and e-mail are simply different methods of sending the written word. Both are virtually instantaneous - which raises some problems. Both are intensive and generate a level of urgency that a letter falling on your desk does not.

Nevertheless, in spite of urgency do not abandon the letter writing rules that we follow with 'snail mail'.

Fax

To be effective a fax should be short - yards of fax paper are a deterrent to reading. Always head a fax with the subject and the addressee's name, rather like a memo. It is not necessary to set out the name and address at the top left.
The greeting, body of the letter and salutation should follow the usual letter writing rules. However, the fax format does give you the opportunity to practise brevity and to move straight to the point of the communication. Be brief, but not terse, and remain courteous.
The fax format provides an ideal opportunity to cut out all the outdated 'commercialese' so often to be found in business letters.

E-mail

Business communication is about getting your message across clearly and in a professional manner. Writing letters and sending them by e-mail is no different. But people, who are normally competent and confident letter writers somehow find themselves hesitant when it comes to business e-mail. This is probably because it is very hard to find the right tone - it is too easy to drop into the casual conversational mode.

Resist this: write e-mail letters as you would write a normal business letter and then ask yourself: 'How would I feel if I received this message?'

E-mail offers the opportunity for rapid exchange of views and information, rather like a spoken conversation. If this is the case there is little point in formal opening and closing of each exchange. But this does not exempt you from the need to make your language clear and easily understood; in fact more so. For example in international negotiations by e-mail it is vital to be sure that understanding has been accurately created. The e-mail exchange can continue rapidly until both sides are convinced and satisfied that they have reached acceptable agreement.

E-mail may be global but it has not yet broken down international business etiquette barriers. So generally start formally with 'Dear Mr X' which is much better than 'Hi there!' Correct spelling and good grammar are essential - jokes and chatroom shorthand are out. All the rules of good business writing apply; do not drop them simply because the transmission method is so swift. Doing business by e-mail can be a bit impersonal - you need to know your reader exists in the real world! Making contact by phone as well is a good way to build your relationship. Reply to e-mails promptly. A swift 'I'll get back to you' is better than silence.

Remember too that e-mail is not private, at least not when sent in clear. (You may encrypt of course.) Therefore if there is confidential or sensitive material to be transmitted, a private letter may be more suitable. And this is especially important in these days of high security risk and computer fraud. So add confidentiality or security notices to your e-mails: if you are not sure who may read them - be safe rather than sorry.

Do not send large attachments unless you are certain the recipient uses broadband; 'snail mail' may be better if there is time.

Do not send any '.exe' files as attachments unless you are very well-known to the recipient. Any person receiving one of these from a stranger will automatically suspect a virus and be extremely annoyed!

You can place orders, present proposals and finalise contracts via e-mail, but anything requiring a legal signature could still need a follow-up by letter.

There are of course many sorts of firewalls, virus protection programs and defensive setups by providers, but the need to be vigilant and to guard confidentiality is emphatic if you are to operate effectively using this dynamic system.

Formal Business Writing (part 3)

A Guide to Business Writing (continued)

 

5. Write clearly, simply and specifically

 

Here are some common pitfalls to avoid:

• superfluous words
• pompous phrases
• vague, abstract words and phrases
• 'hedging'
• the proximity rule
• misuse of pronouns
• words with several meanings
• double negatives.

Superfluous words

'staff of suitable calibre and quality' (Overemphasis and confusion of meaning.)
'I personally believe...' (Who else believes?)

Another common fault is unnecessary adjectives and adverbs:

true facts (If it is a fact it is true.)
actively investigate (Can you investigate passively?)
active consideration (Can you consider passively?)
quite unique ('Unique' means the only one.)
absolutely impossible ('Impossibility' is absolute.)
an unfilled vacancy (A vacancy is something unfilled!)
I would suggest (If you mean it, why be tentative?)
completely fatal (Can something be half or partially fatal?)

The list is endless! Ruthlessly edit these banalities out of your writing.

Pompous phrases

This form of traditional, pointless jargon is described by the the Oxford Concise Dictionary as 'barbarous or debased language'. Many of the phrases are clichés that we use unthinkingly:

'further to the above' (referring to a heading)
'the aforementioned'
'at this moment in time'
'at the end of the day'
'in the not too distant future'
'a substantial proportion'
'for the reason that'
'taking into consideration'

Again, seek out these and similar ghastly phrases and get them out of your writing.
Vague, abstract words and phrases

Using long-winded phrases leads to vagueness. Be specific in your writing. Do not write:
It was suggested that consideration be given to the possibility of improvement in our facilities for conferences with the object of elimination of noise and provision of adequate ventilation.
if you can write:
We need a better place to meet. This room is noisy and hot.

Use concrete rather than abstract words: they are more easily understandable. A concrete word is something you can see or feel. For example:

• chair
• desk
• computer

An abstract word is not something you can see or feel. They generally represent concepts (an abstract word itself!). For example:

• communication
• democracy
• memory
• facility.

Such 'idea' words need explanations - the more explanations the more complex the idea.

Try to choose words which convey precise ideas to your readers, for example:

Do not write:

transport facilities
educational amenities
communication
research facilities
computing facilities
worker on a temporary basis
in the engineering field
the human factor

if you can write:

trains, cars, lorries
schools, colleges
e-mail, letter, phone call
chemistry laboratory
computers
temporary staff
in engineering
people

The more directly you express yourself the happier your reader will be.

'Hedging'

Words such as 'perhaps', 'probably', 'comparatively', etc. are used by writers to avoid committing themselves. If that is your deliberate intention, then all right.

However, if it is not intended, it destroys conviction. Where these words carry such implications, avoid them.

Avoid words that sit on the fence and 'hedge' the meaning until it has no meaning. In the example below, the italicised words 'hedge':

Additional evidence suggests that the difference in the midrange of the curves may possibly indicate a curve form that our hypothesis may not adequately encompass.

Are you any wiser?

The proximity rule

Keep modifying words or phrases close to the word or phrase they modify, otherwise your meaning will be uncertain. For example:
A discussion was held on overtime working in the office.
What went on in the office - the discussion or the overtime working? Or was the discussion held while the staff were on overtime? Make the meaning quite clear; rewrite the sentence - even if it becomes a bit longer - and use punctuation. For example:
A discussion, on overtime working, was held in the office.

Do not write that
The work area needs cleaning badly.
when you mean
The work area badly needs cleaning.

Misplaced modifiers can also be amusing (but may make you look rather foolish):
We saw a man on a horse with a wooden leg.
The fire was extinguished before any damage was done by the fire brigade.
He told her that he wanted to marry her frequently.

Misuse of pronouns

Be careful not to use a pronoun when you have already used two nouns in that sentence - or sometimes in a preceding sentence. For example:
Mary told Susan she was being promoted.
Who was being promoted?
The car collided with the van at the crossroads. It had to be towed away quickly to avoid a traffic jam.
What had to be towed away?

Words with several meanings

Many words that have two (or more) meanings may leave the reader in doubt about your message. For example:
We dispense with accuracy.
John is aggressive.
It is practically done.

If you are unsure of a word that you feel/know has more than one meaning, look it up in the dictionary! The context is often a clue to the meaning intended.

Double negatives

The Double Negative is further discussed here

Try to phrase your message in a positive way rather than a negative one. Instead of:
a decision should not be delayed
write
a decision should be made

Always try and avoid multiple negatives, such as:
there is no reason to doubt that it is not true
The chances of the reader understanding that sentence as true or not true are about even!

Sometimes we can use a multiple negative to give an extra shade of meaning. For example:
There is no specific reason to doubt their claim, but previous experience . . .

Before allowing this sort of negative construction to stand, make sure that it is really needed, either to make your point or add emphasis.

There are plenty of traps that the unwary writer can fall into. Those mentioned in this chapter are some of the most common. But don't let these pitfalls stop you writing. Just get it down on paper. The later process of editing will correct errors and idiocies.

Formal Business Writing (part 2)

A Guide to Business Writing (Contd.)

All writing should be readable and interesting, and communicate its message clearly and unambiguously. Meet these aims by writing in a good, clear style.

4. Style

There are no hard and fast rules — rules are a substitute for the thought which is essential for improving a writer's style. The most common fault is attempting to impress by style, rather than expressing what you want to say.

Lee Iacocca, the former Chief Executive of Chrysler, was definitely against trying to impress by style. There is a paragraph in his autobiography, which is particularly apt:

'Say it in English, and keep it short. I once read a 15-page paper that was tough to understand. I called in the author and asked him to explain what was in the tome he had written. He did it in two minutes flat. He identified what we were doing wrong, what we could do to fix it, and what he recommended. When he finished I asked him why he didn't write in the paper the way he'd just said it to me. He didn't have an answer. All he said was: 'I was taught that way'.'

Iacocca's wisdom is a guide to all writers: essentially — keep it simple, keep it short. We can train ourselves away from the outmoded fashions of writing that we were schooled into. We can learn to write colloquially and communicate effectively.

Style is not fancy or pompous language added to plain statements of fact. All language has a style. It is created by the words we choose, and the way we structure those words into a sentence.

Main styles of writing

The main styles can be divided into three broad classifications:

• Formal: The newly inaugurated copying system has enjoyed a most favourable reception.
• Friendly: Our new copying system is just great.
• Familiar: Our new copying system has become very popular with the departments that use it.

The more formal the style, the more likely we are to use less familiar words and less simple verb forms — such as the passive voice.

At the other extreme, the familiar style might drop into using some slang and, possibly, phrases in place of complete sentences.

The choice of style is a matter of individual preference, organisational custom and — most importantly — the feelings and expectations of your reader(s). Business readers today, tend to prefer shorter, more easily readable writing; the friendly style of writing is probably best.

Aim for a style that is simple, human and precise. To help you achieve this:

Keep a picture of your main reader in mind — write as if to the individual. This will keep a personal touch in what you say.
If you have problems getting away from the traditional formal report writing style, try to picture your reader(s) in your mind. Think what you would say to them if they were there, with you. Then, write it down. You may have to edit what you have written but you will probably have expressed your thoughts in a clear and simple way.
Do not worry about style while you are writing. Say what you want to say, then sort it out when you review what you have written.

Formal Business Writing

A Guide to Business Writing

"Good business writing is a lot harder than it sounds. For the generation of new executives brought up on mobile phones, and used to communicating by SMS or MMS, it can be particularly daunting." - Sidney Callis.

From the book

Business Writing - A Guide to Doing It Well

by Sidney Callis

 

1. Introduction

The main purpose of any writing is to communicate. To communicate we need words - plain simple words are best. But writing in a business context is special, because it has to do with our livelihood. Unfortunately many of us, when faced with having to do a piece of business writing, behave as if plain straightforward everyday language - a perfectly good means of communicating - ceases to exist. What takes over when we pick up a pen, or start to tap our keyboard, is often a strange mix of pompous and clichéd language. This sort of writing is self-defeating, it violates all the principles of effective communication.

Many people find the actual writing difficult, but this is probably the smallest problem. The really important part of the job is gathering and organising the material. If there is insufficient you tend to 'pad'. If there is too much, then you become overwhelmed by the task of getting it all in; the document becomes unwieldy and probably unreadable. Good business writing demands careful choice of material and its proper organisation.

The important principles are: Clarity - Simplicity - Brevity

If your writing is 'weird and wonderful' it will not be clear, neither will it be simple enough to understand easily. And if you 'pad', brevity,the essence of good writing, will be lost.

The preparatory work, the thinking about the writing, and planning in advance, will make it the easier to actually write and you will be more successful in achieving your objective. Therefore, to communicate effectively in business writing, the main principles of establishing purpose, identifying the readership, writing well and good presentation of the finished product should be observed.

There is no 'best way' and there are few rules to tell anyone how to write. Some advice: 'get on with it, without interruption or delay'. Few letters or reports are perfect at the first attempt, so at this stage do not get sidetracked into rewriting. Do not worry about getting it right. If you are communicating in writing, it first needs to be written!

One of the main principles of any writing is to pay attention to expression, so say it as clearly as you can.

2. Order of writing

You need to decide the right structure to meet the readers' needs, but don't be tempted to start to write in that sequence. That is not the best order in which to do the writing. It is probably better to start with the detail and follow each line of thinking through, from the problem to the solution. This applies to any piece of business writing, from a letter to a a report. It is also valid for literary essays or academic papers. Make it easy for the reader to follow your argument.

Suggested writing sequence for a report, but follow this scheme for any piece of business writing.

• Main sections. Work from the problem, through the methods and findings, to a discussion of those findings. There is no need for rigid scheduling — fit the pieces in their slots in your outline, as you write them; shift them about to get 'conclusions'.
• Recommendations. These arise directly from the conclusions.
• Appendices. Include here all the detailed data referred to in the main sections.
• Preliminaries. These are the miscellaneous items that will introduce the report: table of contents; purpose; terms of reference; methodology; background and so on.
• Summary. This section can only be written when everything else is complete.

3. Getting started

Many people find it difficult to get started on a piece of writing. When faced with a blank sheet of paper, even the most experienced writers can get a mental block.

Here are some ideas to help you get started:

• Let your rough ideas take form in your mind. Often we cannot get started because the thoughts we want to express are not clear in our own mind. Give yourself time to let your ideas 'simmer', (but don't use this as an excuse to keep putting off getting down to writing).
• Talk to other people about your ideas. Discussing your thoughts and plans will often bring out new ideas, and will help you form your own ideas more clearly.
• Write as you think. It is difficult to start writing in a clearly structured way. To get started, just 'dump' all your thoughts down on paper in a totally unstructured way. The important thing is to keep the pen moving and the ideas flowing freely. Offload your thoughts in brief note form so there is not too much to write. Then, go over what you have down on paper. Use it to create an ordered and logical outline structure.
• Write visually. It may be easier to put your thoughts down in the form of diagrams such as flowcharts, sketches or 'mind maps'. Words are not the only way to get your ideas on paper. Go back over your 'visuals' and use them to create an ordered outline structure of what you plan to write.
• Write — don't edit. Grammar, punctuation and spelling are initially not important. Getting ideas down on paper is the first step. Tidy up the writing later.

Use any or all of these ideas. Choose those that best suit what you have to write, your own work style and — most important — the one that gets you started on the writing.

Basic Written English - Part 3

Punctuation or 'stopping' is used by the writer to help the reader to understand the construction and meaning of a passage without undue effort. It is akin to the various signs used by a composer in a piece of music, and is just like the various signs on our roads. Just as we cannot drive safely without following road signs, so we cannot write properly without using the various marks of punctuation. In speech the modulation of the voice, with its rises and falls and pauses and stresses, helps the listener to understand what is being said. In writing, without punctuation even a short sentence may have double meaning:

The boy says the teacher is stupid.

As the sentence stands, the meaning is that the teacher is thought to be stupid. A comma after 'boy' and another after 'teacher' will correct any possible misunderstanding.

The boy, says the teacher, is stupid.

Two little 'marks' on the page give the second example a completely opposite meaning, when compared to the first example. You will see that it is vital to use punctuation correctly.

The full stop [.]

We have already seen that the full stop is used to mark the end of a sentence that is not a question or an exclamation. In theory therefore it should cause us no difficulty. But if we are not careful we can easily let our sentences ramble on, making them difficult to understand. Good writers use neither all long nor all short sentences, but rather a mixture of the two, a long sentence being followed by perhaps two or three short ones. A short sentence would probably contain only one or two finite verbs (verbs with subjects) and a long one would contain three or more finite verbs.

The comma [,]

The comma is probably the most difficult stop in punctuation, mainly because it has many functions or uses. Its main uses are as follows:

1. To separate items in a list of more than two:

He plays football, rugby, tennis and squash.
She has homes in England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland.
(Some writers would also put a comma before the 'and' in each sentence. Usually this is simply a matter of personal preference.)

2. To mark off a phrase or clause at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence:

Shortly after he retired, his wife went back to work.
Women, generally speaking, are not as tall as men.

3. To mark off single words such as 'however' and 'therefore':

However, I do not like him.
I am certain, therefore, that he is guilty.

4. To separate adjectives coming before a noun:

A noisy, overcrowded classroom.
A quiet, pleasant boy.
But the comma is omitted where the second adjective has almost become part of the noun itself:

A cheerful old gentleman.

5. To avoid ambiguity, or momentary misunderstanding. We have already looked at one example. Here are two more:

I did not do it, because I like him.
Further, crime must be seen not to pay.

The semicolon [;]

It is a pity that the semicolon is not used these days as much as it used to be, even a few years ago. It indicates a longer pause than the comma but a shorter one than the full stop, and is particularly useful before words like 'then', 'however', 'therefore' and 'nevertheless' when they are used to join two sentences to make a single sentence:

I went to the match; then I went for a drink.
I do not agree; however there is no point in arguing.

To use commas here would be wrong. 'Then' and 'however' are adverbs, not conjunctions, and they must not be used on their own to join sentences together.

The semicolon is also useful between two sentences to add emphasis to the second:

He was found guilty; but I think he was innocent.
I am in charge; and I always will be.

The colon [:]

The main use of the colon is as an introducer of, for example, a list of items:

She wants three things: hard work, loyalty and efficiency.
The following were there: Smith, Weston and Jones.

It is also often used in articles such as this one to introduce examples.

The question mark [?]

The question mark stands at the end of a 'direct' question (one that calls for an answer):

How old are you?
Where are you going?

It is important to note the difference between the direct question that requires a question mark and the indirect question that does not. In the following sentences the questions are indirect (in reported speech) and do not require question marks:

She asked who I was.
He wanted to know where I was going.
(Reported speech is when someone (the writer or speaker) tells someone else (the reader or listener) what was said.)

The exclamation mark [!]

We have already seen that the exclamation mark is used at the end of an exclamatory sentence, and with single-word exclamations (interjections) such as Bravo! and Oh! Sometimes the exclamation mark with single-word exclamations is delayed until the end of the sentence:

Ah, you caught him!
Alas, I missed her!

The exclamation mark may be legitimately used to express surprise or disgust, but we should use it sparingly if we are merely emphasising that we are being clever or amusing. Excessive use of the exclamation mark in this way can be very tiresome to the reader, and the use of double or treble marks (!! or !!!) is as ugly as it is wrong.

Brackets and dashes [( )] [-] [—]

Brackets always go in pairs and are used within a sentence to enclose a word, phrase or clause that supplies additional information or comment:

We always have been (and always will be) against it.
I am (I think) the youngest member.

They are also used to enclose references and dates:

In his best year (1962) he wrote three plays.
This suggests a plural (see page 61).

Only rarely should a whole sentence be placed in brackets, and we must then make sure that the full stop is placed before (and not after) the second bracket:

(It could be argued, of course, that he was insane.)

A single dash is used to mark a pause for effect, or a hesitation in speech:

He was found - alive.
Tell me why - why did you do it?

Double dashes are used to indicate an aside or a parenthesis:

We helped them — some would say hindered them — in their work.
We — the boys and I — will arrive tomorrow.

The Apostrophe [']

We use an apostrophe to show that we have missed out a letter or two; this is called 'the apostrophe of omission'. For example, we can shorten 'have not' to 'haven't', and the apostrophe shows that we have missed out an 'o'. In informal writing there are many instances where we can use the apostrophe of omission:

can not = can't
will not = won't
shall not = shan't
it will = it'll
they will = they'll
I would = I'd

Sometimes it is even possible to get two apostrophes into one word:

I would have = I'd've

It is essential that these contractions are only used in speech and recorded speech. They should never be used in more formal situations, whether in spoken or written English.

We also use the apostrophe to show possession (that something belongs to someone or something):

The girl's coat = the coat of the girl (one girl — singular)
The book's cover = the cover of the book (one book)

The men's books = the books of the men (more than one man — plural)
The children's feet = the feet of the children (more than one child)
The boys' classroom = the classroom of the boys (more than one boy)
The girls' cloakroom = the cloakroom of the girls (more than one girl)

From the above we should note that:

With a singular noun an apostrophe and an 's' are added to the basic form.
With a plural noun, the apostrophe on its own is added if the plural ends in 's' (as most nouns do).
Where a plural noun does not end in 's' (such as 'men', children in the examples) an apostrophe and an 's' are added to the plural form.

It is important to remember that if a singular noun ends in 's' we must still add
an apostrophe and an 's' to form the possessive:

James's house
Thomas's job
The boss's office

We must never use an apostrophe in simple plurals of words that are not possessive:

Videos for sale (not Video's)
1000s of bargains (not 1000's)
The 1960s (not 1960's)

We must also be careful not to use an apostrophe with the possessive pronouns:

hers, his, ours, its, yours, theirs

The hyphen [-]

The main problem regarding the use of the hyphen is that there are no fixed rules to guide us. There are however certain broad principles that most authorities accept, even though they do not always follow them in their own writing. These principles are as follows:

The hyphen joins together two or more words to make a single word with its own meaning. The compound may be for a particular purpose (eg 'giant-sized ego') or it may be permanent (as 'motor-car' was intended to be all those years ago).

A familiar hyphenated word should be converted into an unhyphenated single word unless to do so would result in awkwardness of spelling or ambiguity. For example, 'e-mail' easily converts to 'email', but 'cross-stitch' (because of the resultant 'sss') does not.

The hyphen should be used only when it is necessary as an aid to being understood. From this, it follows that if the hyphen is not necessary for that purpose it should not be used.

If we bear these principles in mind we can safely say that hyphens should normally be used:

To avoid ambiguity.

There are obvious differences in meaning between
'Twenty three-year-old horses',
'Twenty-three year-old horses' and
Twenty-three-year-old horses'.

There is also a difference between
'Fresh-cream cakes' and
'Fresh cream-cakes'.

To distinguish between words that begin with 're' and those that are prefixed by 're' (meaning once again). Thus, for example:

'reform' (abolish etc) and 're-form' (form again)
'resign' (give up employment etc) and 're-sign' (sign again)

In compound adjectives where the compound is used before (but not after) its noun, such as, 'piping-hot meal', 'up-to-date records', 'made-up story'.

Where more than one word follows the prefix 'ex' (meaning former). It does not matter whether we write 'ex-footballer' or 'ex footballer',for example, where only a single word follows the 'ex'. But 'ex'-fighter pilot', for example, could be a pilot who used to be a fighter. The solution is to hyphenate the second and third words following the 'ex' (ex fighter-pilot) or perhaps to leave the hyphen out altogether(ex fighter pilot).

Hyphens should not normally be used:

In compound adjectives where the compound is used after (not before) its noun, such as 'the meal was piping hot', 'the records are up to date', 'the story is made up'.

Where compound nouns (consisting of a noun qualified by a noun used as an adjective) are used as simple nouns following the verb:

The boy wants to be a train driver.
I am going to see the house agent.

In the first example the compound noun is 'train driver' (with 'train' used as an adjective) and in the second it is 'house agent' (with 'house' used as an adjective).

There is no reason at all why these compounds (and countless others) should be given hyphens when they are used as simple nouns following the verb. (When they are used as adjectives - not nouns - they may well require hyphens eg 'A train-driver vacancy', 'A house-agent advert'.)

Where the first word of any compound adjective is an 'ly' adverb, as in for example, 'A truly magnificent performance' or 'A richly deserved prize'. If the first word is an adverb that does not end in 'ly' (such as 'very' or 'little') the hyphen should still not be used unless the adverb might otherwise be mistaken for the adjective with the same spelling:

A very pretty lady but A little-known actor

In the first example 'very' cannot be mistaken for the adjective 'very' (as in 'the very thought of you') and the hyphen is not necessary. In the second example 'little' could be mistaken for the adjective 'little' (A little actor who is known) and the hyphen is essential.

Other one-off situations will frequently arise, and we must then decide for ourselves whether to hyphenate or not. It is a fact that there are many more errors committed by putting hyphens in when they are not needed than there are by omitting them when they are necessary as an aid to being understood.

The dictionaries are there to help us with hyphens, if we are not sure, but we should be aware that their recommendations often differ from dictionary to dictionary.

Postscript (PS)

You have seen here all the pieces that go to make up how we communicate with others. But why do we need to be able to write basic English? Why could we not just write anything that comes into our heads using any spelling and any punctuation? It is because we want to be able to make others understand what we want them to understand. Problems occur when people misunderstand others. When we speak to someone we have the intonation and inflection of our voice to help; we have the sound of the words and the shape of the mouth; and we have body language: all of which help make clear what we are trying to say. But when we write, we have none of these things; we have only words and punctuation.

We do not need to be able to write like a famous author or poet, but we all need to be able to write basic English; we all need to be able to make ourselves understood in speech and in writing.

In this article we have briefly looked at the individual elements that collectively make up what we have termed 'Basic written English' and we hope that these notes will encourage you to study the grammar and usage of the English language in more detail. We have already mentioned our president's book 'The Queen's English and How to Use It'; it deals much more fully with every aspect of our language than an article such as this one ever could.

Basic Written English - Part 2  

This is the solution to the puzzle we set on the previous page. It's a good idea to practise building sentences in the same way:

The Paragraph

If a sentence may be defined as a group of words expressing a single thought, and ending with a full stop, a paragraph may be regarded as being an ordered sequence of sentences expressing a number of thoughts that relate to the same idea, theme or topic. The end of a paragraph, or rather the beginning of the next one, is indicated by the use of a fresh line, which sometimes starts a little way in from the left-hand margin, and there is often a significant space between one paragraph and the next. The intended pause at the end of a paragraph is usually much longer than the pause at the end of a sentence; it gives the reader a rest or a break, something like a rest ( an interval of silence) in music.

There is no rule to tell us how long or short a paragraph should be, but most paragraphs probably contain no more than twelve sentences and no fewer than three. Popular newspapers frequently use very short paragraphs, and they often contain only one sentence. This device of the one-sentence paragraph can be quite effective, but we recommend that you do not use it until you are experienced enough to be able to do so without any possibility of criticism.

Suppose that we want to write a short article or essay containing three paragraphs on the subject of 'My local railway station'. The first paragraph could say where the station is and how we get there. We could say what is close to the station, such as fields, shops, houses, and give a description of the station itself including, for example, the number of platforms. The second paragraph could say where most of the trains go to or come from and how many carriages they have. Presumably there would be only a few for short distances and more for longer distances. The third and final paragraph could mention the fact that years ago the engines were all powered by steam but are now all diesel or electric. This final paragraph (and the article) could possibly be brought to an end with two sentences something like, 'It is a pity that steam engines are no longer in general use on our railways. For many of us, train travel no longer has the romance that it had all those years ago'.

Spelling and the use of the dictionary

Despite the fact that English is a beautiful language, there is no doubt that it is not easy to spell many of the words we use, as they are not always spelt as they sound. However, one way to overcome this difficulty is to read, and retain the spelling of words as you come across them. Our own president, Dr Bernard Lamb, has admitted that he was a poor speller until he was in his thirties, but he is now the author of numerous articles and books. His latest book, 'The Queen's English and How to Use It', published in hardback in 2010 and now is in paperback and as an ebook. It deals fully with all aspects of the English language (including spelling!) and we shall refer to it again later.

Over the years there have been many attempts at spelling reform, but for one reason or another they have all ended in failure. This is not to say that minor adjustments to our spelling are not possible. For example, some writers end certain verbs in 'ise' and others insist on ending them in 'ize' (baptise, baptize, etc), probably on account of their Greek origin. For some time it was thought that 'ize' was used by our American cousins, and 'ise' by traditional English speakers, but this is no longer the case. Our advice is to forget etymology (the origins of words) and to use 'ise' for them all.

We have to admit that there is no easy way to learn spelling: no 'Spelling Without Tears'. But there is one method that was in constant use in our schools until about the 1960s. Those of us who are now into our fifties (or of course older) were taught how to spell correctly at school from about the age of six. The method was simple but effective. Every so often the teacher would give us a list of about a dozen 'difficult' words, which we had to memorise (often as homework) in readiness for a spelling test. We were also given frequent reading tests, which involved reading out aloud, either on our own to the teacher, or to the rest of the class. From memory this did not give us any real difficulty, and it undoubtedly helped us, not only with our spelling but also with our writing.

There are, of course, many ways of learning spellings, and you have to find the best one for you, or make up your own. Sometimes people use rhythm in order to fix a spelling: for example, 'a' double 'c', 'o' double 'm', o d a t i o n = 'accommodation'. If you think of it as in 4/4 rhythm in music, you will see how it works.

Other people use a mnemonic, otherwise known as a memory aid: for example, there is a rat in separate; Mrs D, Mrs I, Mrs FFI, Mrs C, Mrs U, Mrs LTY = difficulty: big elephants can always understand small elephants = because. Think of the NEC in Birmingham to know there is only one 'c' in 'necessary'.

And sometimes you need to write a word many different ways until your brain recognises the pattern of the right spelling. Even when you have learnt how to spell a certain word, it will be useful practice for you to make up different sentences using the word, and to write the sentences down, perhaps three or four times.

It is fair to say that most of us have difficulty spelling some particular word or words, and the reason is not always obvious. However, we must never rely on modern technology to correct our spelling mistakes. To do so would be lazy and dangerous, as the computer just checks whether each word typed is one that is in the dictionary. All the computer knows is that 'checks' and 'cheques' (for example) are both valid words, and we may well end up with 'checks' when we meant 'cheques' or 'cheques' when we meant 'checks'.

This is where the dictionary itself comes into its own. All we need are the first two letters of the word we are looking for and we should then be able to find it quite easily. But a medium-sized dictionary usually offers much more than that. When we have found the word we are looking for, we are given its meaning or meanings and are told which part of speech (adjective, noun etc) it comes under. If a word can function as more than one part of speech, each is dealt with in turn. A selection of any fixed phrases containing the word usually then follows (for example, 'here', in 'neither here nor there'). If a word or phrase is colloquial (broadly, suitable only for speech or informal writing) or slang or vulgar, it will be labelled accordingly. The origin of each word (if known) is given at the end of each entry.

There is an old saying that practice makes perfect. That simple statement certainly applies to writing in general, but it also applies
This is the solution to the puzzle we set on the previous page. It's a good idea to practise building sentences in the same way.

Basic Written English

by Bill Ball, Rhea Williams and Tony Scott

Introduction

Before we can write we have to learn to read, and before we can read we have to learn to speak. That is the normal order of events from the time we are born to about the age of four. Indeed, that is how the language came into being all those years ago. In other words, the language came before the grammar, and not the other way round. It is important to remember this simple fact, because it is the spoken word that fashions the changing language, and not the grammarians, who in reality can do no more than list the rules as they exist in their own lifetimes. Popular usage (that is, speech) has always had the final say and it always will, much to the understandable annoyance of those of us who love the language and want it to remain as it is. It is true that many of the changes that have taken place in the language (particularly over the past 40 years or so) have been changes for the worse. For this reason, it is essential that we all do our utmost to discourage the intrusion of anything that might be detrimental to the language as it exists today. That is one of the main aims of the King's English Society.

What is basic written English?

For our purposes, basic written English may be regarded as lying somewhere between the informal language of everyday conversation and the formal language of the legal profession and those who draft our legislation. Basic written English is that which is not open to serious criticism when judged by the standards of current good usage. In other words, it is English which is in accordance with the rules and customs of today.

The tools of the trade

Before we can even begin to write acceptable English, we need to have some knowledge of the basic components of the language: the tools of the trade, as it were. Just as any skilled workman needs his tools to enable him to carry on his trade, so too does the writer. The writer's tools are the thousands of words that make up the language, even though to start with he will need only a fraction of them. But it is how he uses those words that determines whether he is writing what may be loosely termed 'good English' or 'bad English'. Words on their own are only one of the components of the language, although they are of course the most important. The words must be made into readable sentences, and within those sentences there will be groups of words that are called phrases and clauses. We shall look at all these elements a little later on, together with the paragraph, spelling and the use of the dictionary, and punctuation.

In the meantime, we cannot stress often enough that the writer's strongest ally is his ability to read. The more he reads, the better his writing becomes; and the beauty of this is that it does not matter what he reads: books, newspapers, pamphlets, advertisements, or articles on his computer. Someone once said that reading maketh a full man. It is certainly true that reading is absolutely necessary from the outset if we are to have any chance of becoming writers of good English.

What is a sentence?

The basic unit of writing is the sentence. But what is a sentence? Over the centuries, grammarians and other writers on language have set down hundreds of different definitions of a sentence, many of which were too complicated to be of any real use. Briefly, we need to know just three things. Firstly, a sentence is a group of words that is complete in itself and expresses a statement, a command, a question, or an exclamation. Secondly, a sentence always begins with a capital letter and ends only with a full stop (.) or a question mark (?) or an exclamation mark (!). Thirdly, every sentence must contain or imply a subject, (the person or thing we are talking about) and a predicate ( which is simply what is said about the subject). Here are four simple sentences which should help to make this clear:

She is going to the dance tonight. (statement)
Stop here. (command)
Have you seen my book? (question)
How old he is looking! (exclamation)

In the first sentence, the subject is 'She' and the predicate is 'is going to the dance tonight'. In the second, the subject (which is implied or understood) is 'You' and the predicate is 'stop here'. In question sentences and exclamation sentences, part or all of the predicate may come before the subject. In sentence 3, the subject is 'you' and the predicate is 'have seen my book?' In sentence 4, the subject is 'he' and the predicate is 'is looking how old!' However long a sentence may be, it can still be divided into its two parts, subject and predicate:
A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.

The subject is 'A bird in the hand' and the predicate is 'is worth two in the bush'.

There is one type of word that must appear in every sentence. It is the 'doing' or 'being' word that is called the verb. The grammarians call such verbs 'finite verbs', which for our purpose are verbs that have subjects. In 'John goes to work', for example, the verb is the doing word 'goes' (with John as subject) and in 'Mary is a swimmer' the verb is the being word 'is' (with Mary as subject). The main non-finite part of the verb is known as the infinitive. It does not have a subject, and in English it is usually preceded by 'to' (to go, to run, to speak etc).

All finite verbs have 'tenses', or 'times', and the doing or being action expressed by the verb may be thought of as taking place in three different times: past, present, future. Here are three simple examples:

I saw (past tense)
I see (present tense)
I shall see (future tense)

The tenses of verbs do not cause us much trouble, and we usually are able to make the necessary adjustments without much thought. One thing should be noted, however. The verb is not always just one or two words. In the following examples the full verbs are underlined:

• We shall be going home tomorrow.
• They have been playing for two hours.
• She should have finished her homework by now.

The grammar books say that the verb must 'agree with its subject in number and person'. 'Number' explains itself. If the subject is regarded as one (singular), the verb must be singular. If the subject is more than one (plural), the verb must be plural. Verbs are said to have three 'persons', as follows:

First person: I (singular), We (plural)
Second person: You (singular and plural)
Third person: He, She, It (singular), They (plural)

If the subject is in the first person, the verb must be in the first person (I am. We are). If the subject is in the second person, the verb must be in the second person (You run). If the subject is in the third person, the verb must be in the third person (He, She, It swims. They swim).

We have said that every sentence must have a verb. Each of the other words that are used to make up a sentence will fall into one of the other types of word that are often referred to as parts of speech. The main parts of speech (including verbs) are as follows:

Nouns (used to identify people, places or things)
Adjectives (used to 'describe' nouns)
Adverbs (used to 'modify' other words, mainly verbs)
Pronouns (used mainly to avoid repetition of nouns)
Prepositions (used to show their relation to other words)
Conjunctions (used to join words, phrases and clauses)
Interjections (are exclamations such as Bravo! and Oh!)

Here's one for our younger visitors. Try to place the words on the right into a proper sentence. The solution is on the next page. NO PEEPING!

It is important to note that many words have more than one function. That is, they can be one part of speech in one context and a different part of speech in another. In 'Where is my book?' for example, the word 'book' is a noun. In 'I will book a table' the word 'book' is a verb.

When we are reading, speaking or writing, we do not consciously break down a sentence into its parts (subject, predicate, noun, adjective etc) and you may be wondering why we have bothered to mention them. The main reason is that, as your writing improves and you feel encouraged to consult books on grammar and usage, you may well find it useful to have some basic knowledge of these words in advance.

The same can be said of clauses and phrases which again we are not normally conscious of when we read or write. A clause, like a sentence, must have a subject and a predicate of its own. A phrase is a group of words without a subject or a predicate. The best way to explain the difference between clauses and phrases is by illustration. Here are three sentences, with comments:

• The man is a teacher.
• The man who lives next door is a teacher.
• The man who lives next door is a teacher at my school.

In the first sentence there is one verb only ('is') and therefore only one clause (the sentence itself). In the second sentence there are two verbs ('lives' and 'is') and therefore two clauses, 'who lives next door', and 'The man is a teacher'. In the third sentence there are again the two clauses that are in the second sentence, but with 'at my school' tagged on at the end. These three words at the end have some meaning of their own, but as they do not contain a finite verb they cannot be called a clause. They are what are known in English grammar as a phrase, which is something that has meaning but is neither a single word nor a clause.

Until about the middle of the 1960s, the English tests and exams in many schools invariably contained the dreaded command,'Analyse the following sentences into clauses....' In 1945 a writer on language, Gordon Humphreys, had this to say in his book 'Teach Yourself English Grammar'.

"Practice in the analysis of sentences can develop an appreciation of the well-constructed sentence and assist in detecting the faults of a loose sentence. It takes you into the workshop of the language. You see how the sentence works."

That may be so, and sentence analysis could be of some interest to the experienced writer. But, as we have already mentioned, we do not consciously break down a sentence into its parts before (or after) we write it. As we become more experienced at writing, our ear will tell us whether the sentence sounds right or not. In other words, it is more important to 'hear' a sentence than it is to analyse it.

In this section we have briefly shown how the English sentence is made up. Sentences then have to be put into paragraphs, unless what we are writing is short and paragraphs are not required.
This Guide is continued on the next page.

 

The main punctuation marks

1. The Full Stop [.]

a. This is the strongest punctuation mark, making the most definite pause (in reading aloud or silently) when used at the end of a sentence. As shown in the previous examples, it is used at the end of sentences unless they are questions, strong exclamations or strong commands. It is also called a period and a full point.

b. It is used to indicate omitted letters in abbreviations, such as Mon. for Monday or a.m. for ante meridien (Latin for 'before noon'), and in initials, as in B.K.Smith.

Common abbreviations, and those of scientific terms and names of organisations, are now frequently spelled without full stops, e.g. Mr (Mister), Dr (Doctor),DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid),cm (centimetre), UK (United Kingdom). A distinction is sometimes made between a contraction, where the last letter of the contracted form is the last letter of the original word, needing no full stop (e.g., Dr for Doctor) and an abbreviation in which its last letter is not the last letter of the full word, needing a full stop (e.g., Prof. for Professor). If an abbreviation which takes a full stop, such as etc. (et cetera, Latin for 'and so forth'), comes at the end of a sentence, there is no need for another full stop to end the sentence: I will send you the members' names, addresses, etc.

c. Full stops are often used in amounts of money: £10.20 and in times: 3.20 a.m. When used in numbers as a decimal point, it is usually just typed as a full stop, but this stop should strictly be raised above the line [·], as in 9·66. On most computers, this can be obtained by having Num Lock on, holding Alt and typing 0183.

d. Three full stops together (the Ellipsis or suspension dots) [. . .] are used to show an unfinished sentence, omission of part of a sentence: The letters of the alphabet are a, b, c, ... x, y, z, or hesitation in speech: She would invite him to. . . No, that was unthinkable.

 

2. The Question Mark [?]

This is used to end a direct question where an answer is normally expected: "Where do I buy a season ticket?" It is not used for an indirect question (which reports a direct question), to which no answer is expected: She asked where she could buy a season ticket. It is used at the end of rhetorical questions(*) even though no answer is expected. A question mark is needed when question phrases (question tags) are added to statements: "The concert is tonight, isn't it?"

3. The Exclamation Mark [!]

This is used after exclamations showing a high degree of surprise: "Fancy meeting you here!" or strong emotion: "You filthy cheat!" or special emphasis: "You are so beautiful!" or an expletive(**) "Damn!" It is also used after strong commands or requests, especially where the voice would be raised in speech: "Don't shoot!" Mild requests or commands usually end with a full stop: "Come here, please." Using too many exclamation marks weakens their impact.

(*) A question, often implicitly assuming a preferred (usually negative) answer, asked so as to produce an effect rather than to gain information.
(**) An oath or swear word.

 

4. The Comma [,]

A comma has many uses, including:

a. To separate items in a list:

Jake stole her purse, keys, cheque book and credit cards. There is no need for a comma before the 'and' unless the sense demands it. The comma before the final 'and' is helpful in: The children played cops and robbers, hide and seek, and hopscotch. Some people, especially in the USA, use commas before 'and' even in simple lists as in the Jake stole... example above. Commas can also be used to separate a series of phrases or clauses.

b. To separate two or more adjectives which individually modify a noun:

He was a small, shy, sickly, red-headed child. There is no comma after the last adjective, and the commas carry the sense of 'and'. If the last adjective and the noun form a single unit of meaning, there is no need for a comma before the final adjective as there is no sense of 'and' connecting the two adjectives: He was a great mathematical genius.

c. In pairs, commas are used to separate descriptive phrases or clauses, or less important material, from the main part of the sentence:

Her sports car, painted a vivid orange, was parked illegally. Omitting the first comma in that sentence would initially suggest that her car could paint; omitting the second comma initially suggests that a vivid orange was parked: both commas are needed, operating as a pair. Where correct punctuation is used, the reader should not have to re-read a sentence to make sense of it. The test for the correctness of this use of a pair of commas is to read that which precedes the first comma and that which follows the second, omitting the words between the commas. The result should still make sense: Her sports car [...] was parked illegally.

It is most important to know the difference between phrases or clauses that merely comment, which have a pair of commas separating them off, and phrases or clauses that are defining, where a pair of commas would give the wrong meaning. In: The boys, who were fit, enjoyed the race, 'who were fit' is commenting: this implies that all those particular boys were fit and all enjoyed the race. In: The boys who were fit enjoyed the race, 'who were fit' is defining: only those boys who were fit enjoyed the race; by implication, those boys who were not fit did not enjoy the race.

Note how the presence or absence of a comma can change the meaning:
(i) She liked Tony, who played cricket better than John.
(ii) She liked Tony, who played cricket, better than John.
In (i), 'better' refers to 'played cricket',
but in (ii), 'better' refers to 'liked Tony', as the words between commas are now a descriptive aside.

Note also the effect of omitting the comma from these sentences: (i) She hoarded silver, paper and rags. (ii) We ate chocolate, cakes and ices.

d. To separate parts of compound or complex sentences, to aid comprehension by separating different ideas:

Although he was already deeply in debt, he bought her an expensive ring.

Do not, however, separate the subject from the verb, unless a commenting section comes between them. Wrong: Such absurd, extravagant and distracting gestures, should not be used when speaking to a very small audience. The second comma is wrong as it hinders the flow of meaning from the subject, 'gestures', to the verb part, 'should not be used'.

e. To separate sentence modifiers such as moreover, indeed, however:

(i) The submarine, however, continued its attack.

(ii) Indeed, I have never felt better.

f. To separate parts of dates and addresses, and in opening and closing letters:

Note that the comma after 28 is standard practice even though there is no logical or grammatical reason whatsoever for its use there. Its omission would not detract from the meaning and would remove an unnecessary comma.

Some or all of those commas in the address are now often omitted, with moving to a new line acting as a kind of punctuation. The Post Office prefers no punctuation in addresses, the post town in capitals, and the post code on a separate line.

g. To separate the figures within a number into groups of three, from right-to-left if there is no decimal point, or from the decimal point, going to the left only:
6,457; 13,109,896; 4,678·98577; 0·9876547. This helps the reader. As a matter of interest, in some countries where English is not the official language commas are used where we use a full stop, and vice versa, which can be very confusing. Thus in France, for example, 3·1 is written 3,1 and a million as 1.000.000.

h. To separate two independent clauses (which could usually be written as separate sentences) that are joined by a co-ordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, so, yet, either...or, neither...nor):
It is necessary to eat, but it is better to combine necessity with pleasure.

i. To prevent misreading, even temporary misreading:
If you want to shoot the farmer will lend you his gun.

This would be clearer as:
If you want to shoot, the farmer will lend you his gun.
The first version initially implies shooting the farmer.

j. To show the omission of a word or words whose meaning is understood:
He can tolerate no noise; she, no silence.
One of the most common errors ('run-on sentences', with only a 'comma splice') is to use only a comma, without a conjunction, to join main clauses which could stand as separate sentences, each having a subject and finite main verb. Wrong: We went to the races at Ascot, it was beautifully sunny, the horses sweated even more than usual. Such 'sentences', if linked, should be joined by a stronger link than just a comma; a semicolon, or a comma plus a linking conjunction, should be used. Use a colon if a second 'sentence' explains, expands or summarises the first.

 

5. The Semicolon [;]

The semicolon is an important but often under-used punctuation mark. It is particularly useful in long, complicated sentences, giving a longer pause than a comma, but not as long as a full stop. There are several major uses:

a. Semicolons can be used instead of commas to separate items in a list, especially where some items are long or contain commas themselves, or to avoid misunderstandings:
At the zoo we saw a brown bear, which was suckling two tiny cubs; a sleepy crocodile; two stick insects, each looking like a dead twig; and five elephants.
Here, having a semicolon, not a comma, after 'cubs' avoids any implication that the bear was suckling all remaining items in the list. A comma is usually sufficient before the last item, but a semicolon here makes clear that the stick insects did not look like five elephants as well as like dead twigs.

b. To separate clauses which could have been two different sentences, but which are closely related in meaning, and are of similar importance:
It was long past midnight, in a remote part of the forest; she shivered with fear.
Although one could use a full stop after 'forest', making two sentences, joining the sentences with a semicolon shows better that her action was related to, not independent of, the time and place.
Two statements joined by a semicolon may provide contrasting ideas:
The very young often wish to be older; the very old would prefer to be younger.
The second or later statement may complement the first:
The road to Bristol seemed unusually smooth; the recent repairs had been costly but effective.
A colon could be used here instead of a semicolon.

c. To come before linking words (those quoted are adverbs, or adverbs and conjunctions) such as therefore, nevertheless, however, besides, when they join two independent clauses or sentences:
She hated London; nevertheless, she flourished there.
A semicolon is often equivalent to, and replaceable by, a comma plus a conjunction:
(i) She liked Robert; he disliked her.
(ii) She liked Robert, but he disliked her.
With this equivalence, some textbooks state that it is wrong to have a semicolon followed by an ordinary conjunction (e.g., and, but, for, nor), but other books permit it.

 

6. The Colon [:]

A colon is generally a punctuation mark of introduction, signalling 'look ahead', rather than of separating or stopping things. It is used:

a. To introduce a list:
I suggest the following for promotion: Enid Brown, Peter Scott and John Reid.
Use a colon (without a following dash), not a semicolon, to introduce lists.

b. To introduce direct speech:
He said: "I don't give a damn".
A comma could be used instead of the colon.

c. To introduce an explanation, expansion or summary of the first part of a sentence:
There were two problems: his small income and her taste for luxury.

d. Colons are used in proportions and ratios: a 3:1 ratio and in expressing time: 10:25:45 (45 seconds past 10.25 am).

e. There are some occasions when either a colon or a semicolon could be used to join two sentences, but choose a colon if the second one expands, explains or summarises the first one, with the colon signalling 'look ahead!':
At last he told us Peter's secret: the old tramp had been extremely wealthy, but had gambled his fortune away.

 

7. The Brackets [( )]

Brackets are always used in pairs, to separate supplementary, subsidiary or explanatory material from the main flow of a sentence:
Visitors arriving for the conference in Glasgow on 2nd January (a bank holiday in Scotland) should make their own arrangements for lunch that day.
The same, strictly speaking, holds true for paragraph numbering: (1)... (2)... but this is frequently ignored, only the closing bracket being used [ 3) ].
The material inside the brackets can be referred to as being 'in parenthesis'.(*) In equations, there may be different types of brackets,
( ), { }, [ ], to show different hierarchies of terms. Brackets are also used to enclose references, interruptions and afterthoughts:
Mr Brown's comments (letter, The Times, Aug. 3) show a total ignorance of Germany's history.
Brackets make a firmer separation of the enclosed material than do two commas. If the words in brackets come at the end of a sentence, a full stop (or [?] or [!]) comes after the second bracket. If the words inside the brackets make a complete sentence, put a full stop (or [?] or [!]) before the closing bracket.
Square brackets, [ ], are used to enclose editorial comments or explanations in material written by a different author:
Rachael [his second wife, who died in 1983] left the cottage at Amberley to her sister Rebecca.

(*) Note that any of the following can form a parenthesis:
The boys, who were fit, enjoyed the race [a pair of commas]
The boys — who were fit — enjoyed the race [a pair of m-dashes]
The boys (who were fit) enjoyed the race. [a pair of round brackets]

 

8. The Dash [- or — ]

A single dash is used:

a. To mark a pause for effect:She wore her most stunning dress — a billowing ocean of multi-coloured taffeta.

b. To introduce an afterthought, a summary, an elaboration or a change in direction of thought:
"I was in the artillery during the war — but I mustn't bore you with ancient history."

c. A pair of dashes is used to show an interruption in the flow of thought, to enclose a side comment or a subsidiary idea:
His grandmother — a brilliant actress in her day — encouraged him to apply for the leading part.
Pairs of dashes, brackets and commas are sometimes interchangeable, but may give a different emphasis.

Some printers do not put spaces before and after a dash, but putting those spaces, as in the examples in points 1 and 2 in this section, helps to distinguish a dash from a hyphen. Distinctions are sometimes made between en-dashes (or en-rules), originally the length of the letter 'n', and em-dashes, originally the length of an 'm'. En-dashes [-], without spaces, are used for a span, as in The 1939-45 war or in joining names, as in The Rome-Berlin axis or The Hardy-Weinberg law. Em-dashes [—], with or without spaces, are used to enclose commenting statements, as in: His taste in clothes —which was appalling —had many followers. Some word-processors automatically put en-dashes and em-dashes where they are appropriate, but not always correctly. With most computers, en-dashes can be obtained by having the Num Lock on, holding Alt, and typing 0150, with 0151 for em-dashes. For most purposes, typing [space][hyphen/dash][space] is sufficient for an en-dash. In MS Word, the em-dash will automatically appear if the word following the en-dash is followed by a space. In cases where this does not happen, the em-dash can be forced by typing a letter/space/en-dash/space/letter; to convert: * -* into * —* type * m - m * then delete the two 'm's.

 

9. The Hyphen [-]

The hyphen has no surrounding spaces and is a joining mark within words and compound expressions:
ex-wife, short-sighted, blue-eyed; do-it-yourself, non-stick.
American usage is often to omit the hyphen, and that trend is now increasingly apparent in British English, although 'blueeyed' would be absurd. There is no such word asnon in normal English, so non aggression treaty is wrong; the non must be hyphenated to the following word: non-aggression.
A hyphen is particularly useful to distinguish words with the same letters but different meanings:
To re-cover the chair with velvet; to recover the chair from the rubbish dump.
To resign from one's job; to re-sign the lease agreement for another year.
Hyphens are valuable for avoiding ambiguity. Note the differences in meaning between:
An ancient-history teacher and An ancient history-teacher.
There is ambiguity in this sentence: Forty odd people were present. Does it mean about forty normal people or forty unusual people? A hyphen could resolve that:
Forty-odd people were present, but putting About forty people were present is even better.
Contrast a cross-party group of MPs with a cross party group of MPs.
A hyphen is often used if combining two words, or a prefix with a main word, would result in two identical vowels or three identical consonants coming together from different component parts of the word: pre-emptive; co-opt; co-operation and co-ordination or grass-seed.
Note that cooperation could read as cooper (a barrel-maker). The principle is that where English has double-vowel combinations as a sound in their own right, e.g. seed, food, look, such double vowels should be separated by a hyphen when they belong to separate words or a prefix or a suffix and are pronounced separately. Hence:
Co-operate and not cooperate (which the Americans use).
Pre-emptive and not preemptive.
Socio-oriented and not sociooriented.
As English does not have words with the "aa", "ii" or "uu" combinations, this separation is not essential but is still to be preferred, e.g.
Contra-action is better than contraaction (looks like a misspelling of contraction).
Anti-incendiary is better than antiincendiary.
A Hindu-union movement rather than a Hinduunion movement.
One would not put a hyphen in seed as the two identical vowels are not from different components of the word, as they are in 'pre-emptive'.
Hyphens are also used when writing numbers, and fractions used as adjectives, if consisting of more than one word:
By the age of twenty-three, he had spent his one-third share of his father's legacy. Note that one third of the class would not have a hyphen after 'one', as 'one third' is then a noun phrase, not an adjectival phrase. It is unusual to hyphenate 'twenty three' in that sentence.
The man with many children paid thousands of pounds for their twenty first birthday parties is ambiguous: it needs a hyphen after twenty or after first, depending whether '21st birthday' or '20 first-birthday' is intended.
The hyphen is used to divide a word at the end of a line. Do not divide one-syllable words and do not divide a word so as to leave only one letter before or after the division. In general, divide words at the ends of syllables (pronounce them, if unsure where the syllables end, e.g., mi-cro-scop-ic). Avoid distracting fragments, as in: the-rapist or depart-mental.

 

10. The Apostrophe [ ' ]

This has several uses:

a. To indicate that a letter or letters have been omitted: don't (do not); I'll (I will or I shall); it's (it is or it has — note that the possessive pronoun 'its' does not have an apostrophe). Do not use an apostrophe in possessive pronouns: its, hers, his, ours, yours, theirs, but there is one in one's.

b. To form plurals of expressions with no natural plural: The 1980's were a better decade for us. Many writers would omit that apostrophe.

c. To form the possessive case of a noun:
(i) With a singular noun, add an apostrophe and an "s" to the basic form: John, John's hat; the car, the car's wheels. One may optionally omit the "s" if it makes an awkward combination of s-sounds: James's house, but James' serious suspicions.
(ii) With a plural noun, add only the apostrophe if the plural ends in s already: the two boys' bicycles; the books' prices; the ladies' hats.
(iii) If the plural noun does not end in "s" already, add an apostrophe and an "s": the men's choice; the people's reactions.

d. To form the plurals of letters (There are two c's and two r's in 'occurred') where the combination "cs" and "rs" might be confusing, although there is no recognised rule to this effect and it would be far better to use quotes rather than an apostrophe, thus: "c"s and "r"s).
Do not use an apostrophe in the plurals of ordinary words which are not possessive. Wrong: cheap cauliflower's! Bargain shirt's. These are ordinary plurals, with no sense of possession, whereas The shirt's price does need an apostrophe, showing possession of the price by the shirt. Such wrong apostrophes in plurals are often called "greengrocer's apostrophes".
The power of the apostrophe is shown in the newspaper headline: BRITON'S BATTLE FATIGUE. This was an account in Metro of one Briton's battle fatigue. If the apostrophe had been after the "s", it would have indicated the battle fatigue of more than one Briton. Without the apostrophe, Britons battle fatigue, the word "battle" changes from a noun to a verb, indicating that more than one Briton was battling with fatigue, not battle fatigue specifically.

11. The Quotation Marks [ " " ] or [' ']

Quotation marks are also called inverted commas, speech marks or quotes. Use common sense to decide where other punctuation comes in relation to them. British and American usages differ at the end of the quoted text:
The Englishman said, "Carry on, chaps".
The American said, "Carry on, you guys."

Common sense dictates as follows:
"It is raining." The whole sentence, including the full stop forms the quotation.
John walked into the room and said, "It is raining". Only the last 3 words are quoted but the sentence is a complete unit from John to the end of the quotation so the full stop comes at the very end, after closing the quotation mark.
When a quotation comprises several sentences, the end quotation mark comes after completion of the last sentence, i.e. after the last full stop: He said, "It has been a long day. You look pretty exhausted. I suggest we go home."

a. They are used in pairs to enclose direct speech; that is, the exact words spoken:
"We've won!" she shouted.
When the words spoken come before the verb relating to the act of saying, they are followed by a comma (or [?] or [!]) before the closing inverted comma, not by a full stop, even though the spoken sentence has ended:
"I'm going to France soon," she declared.
The first word spoken has a capital letter. Where the spoken sentence is broken by the subject and verb of saying, the continued speech after the break is still the same spoken sentence and so continues with a small letter (unless the first word always has a capital letter):
"It is my wish," the comedian said, "to bring laughter to this troubled world."
In quoted speech lasting more than one paragraph, there is an initial quotation mark and one at the beginning of each subsequent paragraph (to indicate that the speech continues), but no quotation mark at the end of each paragraph (the speech has not finished), until the final closing quotation mark. Extended quotations are sometimes shown by indenting a whole section, without quotation marks.
Although sets of either single or double inverted commas can be used — different publishers have different conventions — using double inverted commas avoids possible confusion when an apostrophe follows a final "s". For example, in: are often called 'greengrocers' apostrophes', it is not immediately clear whether the marks after 'greengrocers' or 'apostrophes' are apostrophes or closing single quotation marks. It would be clearer to write: are often called "greengrocers' apostrophes".

b. Inverted commas are used in pairs to indicate direct quotations in writing. For quotations within quotations, one alternates single and double inverted commas: The colonel said: "My happiest times as a soldier were with 'the boys in the bush' in North Africa."

c. Inverted commas can also be used to enclose slang, dialect or foreign expressions, and technical terms or other terms that seem out of context:
(i) He punched him viciously in the 'bread basket'. [slang for stomach]
(ii) Her natural 'joie de vivre' [French for 'joy of living'] was accentuated by several glasses of champagne.

d. Inverted commas are sometimes used to enclose the titles of books, plays, poems, newspapers, etc., when quoted in writing, but such marks are often omitted. Italics are now often preferred to quotation marks for titles, slang and foreign expressions.

e. Inverted commas are used when a word is used in a sarcastic, ironic or figurative sense:
I don't know what the girls see in him; it must be his "good looks" [he is ugly].
She is our "Margaret Thatcher". [The strong lady of our group.]

 

12. The Slash [ / ]

The slash is also known as the solidus, the slant, the oblique or oblique stroke or simply the stroke. It is used in fractions: 3/5ths of the distance; in dates: 21/12/02;
to show alternatives: (i) Your coach/train/boat/plane ticket;
(ii) He/she should go... Both the forward slash (/) and the backslash (\) are used in computing.

 

13. The Caret

The last of these is also known as the circumflex accent in French and Portuguese, although it serves a different purpose in those languages; in English, the caret indicates where omitted material (usually shown above in smaller print) is to be inserted.
[The above symbols do not display correctly on all systems. They can be described thus: The first is an upside-down letter "y"; the second is an upside-down letter "V"; the third is exactly like the French circumflex accent.]

Written by the President of the Queen's English Society, Dr B. C. Lamb, who thanks Michael Gorman and Ray Ward for their very useful comments. This is a slightly amended version of the original 2008 printed version.
lV. Other Punctuation or Typographic Devices

1. The The Capital Letter [ A,B,C... ]

Capital letters, sometimes called upper-case letters, are visual symbols, helping the reader in the same way as punctuation marks. They are used in many places, including: the beginning of a sentence or piece of speech; in proper names (London, Joan Smith, River Thames, North Pole, Fleet Street, Senate House); in titles, for example, of people, plays, films, books and newspapers (the Prime Minister, Princess Diana, the Earl of Essex, the Managing Director, The Tempest, The Spy Who Loved Me, The Daily Telegraph); in days of the week; in months; in the name of God or other divine figures, and in the pronoun I. Capitals are not used for the seasons (spring, winter), nor for points of the compass unless part of a proper name: "Go east, to East Sheen." In titles, less important words such as a, of, or the, often do not have a capital letter, as in:The Applied Genetics of Humans, Animals, Plants and Fungi.
Be careful not to use a capital letter for a word which had a capital as part of a title, but is no longer part of a title: This morning Prince Charles opened the bridge over the River Crane. He then sailed up the river in a small yacht. In the second sentence, 'river' is not part of a title.
The importance of using the right case, upper or lower, is shown by the difference between a DSC and a DSc. A DSC is a military award, the Distinguished Service Cross, while a DSc is an academic higher doctorate, a Doctor of Science degree.
In scientific Latin names, by international convention, the genus always has a capital letter and the species always has a small (lower case) letter, even if based on a proper name: Salmonella typhimurium; Rosa chinensis; Homo sapiens. Newspapers frequently get such capitals and lower case letters wrong. In English, but not in some other languages, adjectives of nationality normally have a capital letter: a French wine; an American flag; German measles. Adjectives derived from proper names have a capital letter: Mendelian laws (from Mendel).

 

2. Italics [a,b,c,A,B,C, ]

Italics or cursive script, with sloping print, are used to show special emphasis, as in: "You were meant to come next Tuesday, not today!" If one read the sentence aloud, the part in italics would be read emphatically. Italics are also used for the titles of books, newspapers, films, and similar items.
Scientific names are usually printed in italics, as in Homo sapiens. Latin and other foreign words used in English are often printed in italics, such as in vitro [in glass, in scientific equipment], in vivo [in life], in situ [in place], jeu d'esprit [witticism]. In a priori [from first principles], having the a in italics helps to prevent one from initially misreading it as the indefinite article, 'a'.
Furthermore, as is clear from this Guide, italics are used to highlight the examples given, to make them stand out from the descriptive text.

 

3. Bold Type

Bold-face type is heavier than ordinary type. It is used to make certain words stand out from the rest, as in the headword entry in a dictionary, to distinguish it from that word's definition. It is used in this guide for section headings.

 

4. Underlining

Underlining or underscoring was used on old-fashioned typewriters for emphasis or Latin names. It has largely been replaced by bold type or italics, respectively. Underscored spaces are sometimes used in computing, especially in e-mail addresses, such as John_Smith@xyz.com. A wartime poster used underlining for emphasis, capital letters for clarity and impact, and moving to a new line as a kind of punctuation — but not consistently.
YOUR COURAGE
YOUR CHEERFULNESS
YOUR RESOLUTION
WILL BRING
US VICTORY

 

5. The Space

The space is not normally listed as a punctuation device but it is the commonest of all and is vital to show where one word ends and another begins. The earliest manuscripts had no spaces between the words, making them hard to read. Note the difference between The rapists are evil and Therapists are evil; Her cake was not iced and Her cake was noticed; The joy of his life was a trophy and The joy of his life was atrophy. A space can change a specific type, such as a blackbird, into a general type, such as a black bird, which includes crows and rooks. As mentioned under "full stop" earlier in this guide, it is advisable to use two consecutive spaces between sentences for ease of reading.

V. Computers and Character sets

Early computers used only a limited set of characters familiar to Americans. Various later attempts have been made to provide much fuller character sets including foreign letters, accented letters and various currency symbols, e.g., ß, é, ¥. There have been different systems at different times, and the extra characters used on one computer may come out differently on other computers or printers. Since the mid-nineties, the main computing systems have been Windows and Unicode (including Microsoft's 16-bit coding) and the UTF-8 generally used in Linux systems.
The following punctuation marks are part of the original ASCII character set and should transfer without problems: full stop, colon, semicolon, question mark, exclamation mark, hyphen, slash, brackets (round, square, curly); the old vertical single and double quotes (the same for opening and closing quotations). Problems may arise with: "curly quotes" or braces, single and double (where opening and closing quotes differ), en-dash, em-dash, ellipsis, caret, raised decimal point, currency symbols, accented and foreign letters.
When using Microsoft Windows, extended character sets can be found using Start > All Programs > Accessories > System Tools > Character Map, then choose the font required and scroll down to find the desired character. This can then be copied [Ctrl C] and pasted [Ctrl V] or one can record the key combination to use with the Num Lock on; for example, Alt+0183 for a raised decimal point [·], Alt+094 for a [^] caret.

Written by the President of the Queen's English Society, Dr B. C. Lamb, who thanks Michael Gorman and Ray Ward for their very useful comments. This is a slightly amended version of the original 2008 printed version; it was prepared in November 2009 with the help of Martin Estinel, for the on-line QES ENGLISH ACADEMY