'Get off of my cloud'

Beware of 'OFF OF!'

On the 30th November 1965, Rock legends - The Rolling Stones - released their memorable hit 'HEY! YOU GET OFF OF MY CLOUD.' Did they unwittingly start a trend in the way many of us now speak some forty five years on?

If I could have my way.... By Douglas Hitchman

It could be argued that the Rolling Stones had a valid excuse for writing the lyric "Hey! You! Get off of my cloud" to fit the music, but I have noticed over several years that the practice of adding 'of' to the adverb 'off' has increased considerably.

I find that this really grates with me and I wince whenever I hear it spoken, for it usually is spoken, seldom written. "She fell off of her horse"; "He got off of the train" to my mind would sound so much better if the 'of' were to be dropped.

Less common is the addition of 'from' following 'off' as in "I wish you would leave off from doing that", but in my mind no less clunky in usage.

Taken to an extreme, I suppose, one could make an "off of colour remark" or " go off of duty", or perhaps even "go off from duty", but here we enter the realms of absurdity - I hope.

Another misuse of 'of' occurs to me, and that is the use of "should of", "could of", "would of" etc. though this is more likely to be mispronunciation of the contracted "should've", "could've" and so on. Phonetically they are similar.

I believe that the practice has its origins in the United States of America which, I suppose is no surprise.

There are many such anomalies dotted throughout the English language and they doubtless may be ascribed to the inevitable and inexorable evolution of the language.

All I would ask is that people should listen and mark such digressions, and in so doing make a mental note to use correct English where ever possible.

During the process of setting up this page, we came across some variants of the song title mentioned above including: '.....Get Off From My Cloud' and '.....Get Offa My Cloud.'

The Hyphen Puzzle (part 2)

In the first part of this guide, we looked mainly at examples of compounds where hyphens should not be used. Here, now, are my further suggestions and comments.

1. Two-word compound adjectives (not containing adverbs) usually need hyphens when they are used attributively:

• A red-hot poker.
• An ivy-covered cottage.
• His old-fashioned suit.
• A load-bearing wall.

So, too, do compounds such as 'out of tune' and 'up to date':

• An out-of-tune piano.
• Where are the up-to-date figures?

But when they are used predicatively ('The poker is red hot', 'The figures are up to date'), hyphens would not usually be necessary.

2. The prefix 'ex' (where it means former) requires careful handling. It does not matter whether we write 'ex-footballer' or 'ex footballer', or 'ex-model' or 'ex model'; but if the prefix is followed by more than one word we have to be careful. For example, 'ex-marine biologist' could be a biologist who used to be a marine; and 'ex-fighter pilot' could be a pilot who used to be a fighter. The solution is to hyphenate only the words following the 'ex' (ex marine-biologist, ex fighter-pilot). Some authorities suggest using two hyphens (ex-marine-biologist, ex-fighter-pilot); but as 'ex' here means former it does not need a hyphen after it.

3. The hyphen must be used to distinguish, where necessary, between those words that begin with 're' and those that are prefixed by 're' (meaning once more). Here are some examples:

Reform (abolish etc) but Re-form (form again).
Relay (a race etc) but Re-lay (lay again).
Resign (from an office etc) but Re-sign (sign again).

(The much quoted example, 'All the professionals have resigned and will be available for next week's match' will serve its purpose here).

4. Sometimes the absence of hyphens can lead to ambiguity:
Twenty three year old horses
Fresh cream cakes

Does the first example mean that the horses are twenty-three-years old, that there are twenty horses that are three-years old, or that there are twenty-three year-old horses? Does the second example mean Fresh-cream cakes, or Fresh cream-cakes?

5. The most important problem with hyphens is that the authorities cannot agree whether simple compound nouns consisting of a noun preceded by a noun used as an adjective should be hyphenated or not. Here are some examples with the noun 'water' used in this way. I have deliberately left out hyphens:

Water bed Water melon Water meter Water lily Water main Water pipe

Some authorities would hyphenate some of these compounds and others would not. The inconsistency is staggering; and it is the same with countless other simple compound nouns where the first word is a noun used as an adjective. Two examples will be sufficient: 'House' as in 'House agent', and 'Ice' as in 'Ice skater'.

The simple fact is that when these compounds are used on their own in the predicate they should never be given hyphens. Are any of the following less easy to read without hyphens?

• Have you seen my water bed?
• Pass me the water melon.
• Are you the house agent?

As attributes of course they may well require hyphens, but never as simple compounds.

I think I have covered the main problem areas with hyphens. Other one-off situations will frequently arise, and we must then decide for ourselves whether to hyphenate or not. For example, we do occasionally have to decide whether to hyphenate 'designations of rank or office' Please check the dictionaries and other authorities for these examples (and many others) to witness firsthand the chaos that Fowler referred to all those years ago:

• Vice Chairman
• Attorney General
• Field Marshal
• Lieutenant Colonel

I would not use hyphens in any of them. On second thoughts, and having reminded myself that hyphens are essential if they are needed for clarity, perhaps 'Vice Chairman' could suggest that the Chairman is into vice. 'Vice-Chairman' can have its hyphen.

The falling-of-the-accent rule of Fowler has some merit; but on balance it is better to ignore it and rely on the less complicated advice given in this article. Hyphens would then be used only when they are necessary as an aid to being understood.

See previous page

The Hyphen Puzzle

by Bill Ball

You may have already studied the Punctuation Guide within this website, but here, we take a closer look at one particular aspect - HYPHENS

Writing in 1926 in 'Modern English Usage', Fowler said, 'The chaos prevailing among writers or printers or both regarding the use of hyphens is discreditable to English education'. If our national newspapers are anything to go by, the chaos is still with us today. But is the education system really to blame? For once, I do not think that it is. Fowler's own article on the hyphen that followed the opening sentence quoted above was so difficult to understand that he probably unwittingly added to the chaos. Sir Ernest Gowers saw fit to rewrite the article completely in his revision of the book some 40 years later.

The simple truth is that there are no clear-cut rules to guide us; and without rules how can the correct uses of the hyphen be taught? Experts often disagree amongst themselves, and even when they do agree they frequently do not follow their own advice. Now, here are some of my suggestions and comments.

1. Hyphens should not be used unless they are necessary to help the reader to understand what the writer intended. Most authorities agree with this but seem unable to agree what 'necessary' means.
2. Hyphens should never be used where the first word of any two-word compound adjective is an 'ly' adverb, as in, for example, 'A truly magnificent performance' or 'A richly deserved prize'. In the preface of the 1994 reprint of 'The Oxford Modern English Dictionary', the executive editor, Julia Swannell, uses the phrase 'a conveniently-sized book'. It is the duty of an adverb to modify (or qualify) the word next to it; and in 'conveniently-sized' the adverb does not need the prop of a hyphen to show that the following word is related to it. This example was taken at random, and is in no way meant to be a criticism of Julia Swannell. I could have taken examples from scores of other sources. 
3. Where the first word of the compound adjective is an adverb that does not end in 'ly' (much, most, very etc), the hyphen should still not be used unless the adverb might otherwise be mistaken for an adjective with the same spelling. In 'A little-known actor', for example, 'little' is indeed an adverb, but the hyphen is necessary because without it 'little' could be taken to be an adjective, that is, a little actor who is known, rather than an actor who is little known. In 'A very pretty lady', on the other hand, 'very' is also an adverb, but because there is no possibility of confusion with the adjective 'very' the hyphen should not be used.
4. Where the compound adjective contains more than one adverb, there is still no need for hyphens, although some authorities would no doubt argue that there is. In 'The most frequently used websites', for example, 'most' modifies 'frequently', and 'frequently' modifies 'used'. There is absolutely no need for hyphens here as the meaning is crystal clear without them. Any temptation to use a hyphen or hyphens in this type of compound should always be resisted.

Hyphens can be ugly things, especially when they are used to avoid repeating a word, as in, 'full- and part-time teachers' for example. What on earth is wrong with 'full-time and part-time teachers? Hyphens are also a nuisance to writers and printers alike, and we should do without them wherever possible. The modern compound 'e-mail', for example, could easily lose its hyphen, and in fact I have always used it as a single word (email). Many other two-part compounds that are presently hyphenated ('bail-out', 'tip-off' etc) could also be made into single words, and their hyphens would not be missed. The authorities must be encouraged to view the loss of some of their hyphens as a step forward and not a step backward.

So far we have looked mainly at situations where hyphens should definitely not be used. This is because there are more errors committed by putting hyphens in where they are not needed than there are by omitting them when they are necessary as an aid to being understood. Situations where hyphens are necessary, desirable or optional will be dealt with in the second part of this article. In readiness for part two, it will be useful if we just remind ourselves of the meanings of a couple of words that are often used by authorities when discussing hyphenated compounds. The words are 'attributively' and 'predicatively'. Compounds are used 'attributively' when they are placed before their nouns, and they are used 'predicatively' when they are contained in what is said about the subject of a sentence. In 'The bleary-eyed man', the compound adjective is used attributively, and in 'The man is bleary eyed' it is used predicatively.

Grammatical Attraction

by Bill Ball

There is physical attraction and there is grammatical attraction. A relationship based on physical attraction alone is often a disaster waiting to happen. Grammatical attraction does not usually lead to a disaster but it can easily lure us into grammatical error.

Grammatical attraction mainly occurs when the verb of a sentence or a clause is 'attracted' into the plural (or
the singular) by a word or words even though the true subject is singular (or plural). Here are a few simple examples that should help to make this clear. They have been made up for the occasion, as real-life examples are often full of clutter that would serve only to distract us. It is the clutter by the way and not the ignorance of the writer that probably causes the error in the first place:

1 New players is the only answer.
2 A catalogue of mistakes were the reason for his dismissal.
3 The manager, with three of his players, have already been charged.
4 I am not one of those who likes swimming.
5 There is tea, coffee and other drinks in the kitchen.
6 Here is the man whom I believe is responsible.

In the first sentence, 'New players' is the chosen subject as it has been placed first and the singular verb 'is' should be plural. Turn the sentence round with 'The only answer' as the chosen subject and the verb would then correctly be singular: 'The only answer is new players'. In the example, the verb has been 'attracted' into the singular by the singularity of the second half of the sentence.

In sentence 2, we have a similar error but for a different reason. The chosen subject is the singular 'A catalogue' but here the 'attracter' (or 'attractor') is not the second half of the sentence, which is singular anyway, but 'mistakes'. The verb should be 'was'.

In sentence 3, the subject looks at first sight to be plural; but 'with' is a preposition not a conjunction so that the true subject is just 'The manager'. The verb therefore should be 'has', but has been attracted into the plural by 'with three of his players' even though the commas around the phrase emphasise its separation from the true subject.

Sentence 4, or something like it, was always a favourite of the examiners in our English exams when I was at school. The grammarians would correctly say that 'who' here is a relative pronoun with 'those' as its 'antecedent', and that since 'those' is plural the following verb must also be plural ('like') to agree with it. I would say that if we simply turn the sentence round ('Of those who like swimming I am not one') we can see that the verb should indeed be plural. The verb has been attracted into the singular by 'one'.

In sentence 5, the true subject is 'tea, coffee and other drinks' , which is plural; but the verb has been attracted into the singular in the mistaken belief that the introductory 'There' is subject, which it is not. The 'tea' has also probably had something to do with it. The verb should be 'are'.

In sentence 6, there is no problem with the verbs but 'whom' should be 'who'. If we take out 'I believe', which is probably the attracter here, we shall see clearly why 'whom' is wrong.

The error in this type of sentence will probably ensure that 'whom' will not be completely banished from the language for some time. Whether that is a good or a bad thing I am not absolutely sure.

The lesson to be learnt from grammatical attraction is that we should read each sentence through before we go on to the next one. But that is probably too much to expect of those writers who are in too much of a hurry to stop and think that they might just have been lured in by grammatical attraction.

The Double Negative

by Bill Ball & Tony Scott

The use of the double negative for emphasis is, as we say, as old as the hills; and it was used in this way centuries ago much more frequently than it is today. But what is a double negative and why is it now regarded as an error? The easiest way to answer these questions is to give a few simple examples and then say why they are wrong.

1. I don't want no lessons from you.
2. I shouldn't be surprised if it didn't rain.
3. He didn't say nothing.

In sentence 1. 'don't and 'no' are both negatives;
in sentence 2. 'shouldn't' and 'didn't' are both negatives;
in sentence 3. 'didn't' and 'nothing' are both negatives.

In English, as in mathematics, we now regard two negatives as making a positive, with the result that each of the sentences quoted has the opposite meaning to the one intended:

'I want lessons from you'.
'I should be surprised if it rained'.
'He said something'.

It should be noted that in the following sentence (and in many sentences like it) the double negatives, 'not' and 'unnoticed', are perfectly acceptable because they make a positive that is intended.
I do not want to go unnoticed. (I want to be noticed.)

A Guide to Business Writing (part 4)

A Guide to Business Writing (Contd.)

 

6. Memos

 

Purpose

The purpose of a memo is to communicate as briefly as possible, so that action will follow as quickly as possible. It cannot do this effectively unless its subject and intention are immediately obvious to the receiver.
The importance of memos

The memo is essential in any organisation. Messages need to be sent from one person to another; giving instructions, requesting information, confirming arrangements; a memo is often used for these functions. They may be handwritten on pre-printed memo forms or may be sent by hand, internal mail or e-mail.

The memo is a form of communication used within the organisation. It is not sent to anyone outside the organisation, i.e. clients, customers, business associates.

Memos are important. Take as much care with their composition as with any other item of internal or external communication. For certain specific purposes, memos are usually better than telephone calls or face-to-face communication, for example:

• to transmit exactly the same information to several people;
• to confirm the time, date and place of a meeting to a number of people who are to be involved;
• to put on record the information, policies or decisions reached at a meeting or conference;
• to confirm, as a matter of record, a decision or agreement;
• to transmit information, policies or directives to an individual.

Topic

A memo should contain information relating to one topic only. Do not combine messages on several topics in a single memo. We are selective in the attention we give to information and we prioritise. If more than one topic is included, there is a risk of paying attention to, and acting on, the information in one part of the memo and ignoring the rest.

Memos which are a permanent record need to be filed. Where do you file a memo which covers several topics? You either need elaborate cross-referencing and indexing, or several photocopies. Keep to the principle of one memo for each topic.

The practice of sending one e-mail covering several memo topics should be avoided. It causes confusion.

Sequencing

A memo should present information in a sequence that is easy and logical for the reader to understand. There should be:

an introductory sentence/paragraph stating the purpose of the memo and enabling the reader to focus attention on the topic;
the main points set out in simple direct sentences, using numbers or bullet points. Longer memos should be set out in clear paragraphs, each dealing with a specific aspect of the topic;
a concluding sentence/paragraph identifying what action the reader needs to take about the information, and when.

All memos should:

• give date and reference number (where applicable);
• indicate sender and recipient;
• give subject headings;
• deal with each consecutive point in a separate paragraph;
• indicate clearly what action the memo requires;
• indicate where appropriate who is responsible for carrying this out.

7. Letters

There are many ways of transmitting the written word - on paper by 'snail mail'; telephonically by fax - or even by 'text'; or electronically by e-mail. But whatever method is used the principles of good writing always apply. Good letter writing can be quickly learned. There is much less space in a letter than in a report, for instance, so say it as clearly as you can. That means following the rules on use of words, length of sentences and paragraphs, correct punctuation and grammar.

To identify the reader is easier, because you know to whom you are writing. You can adapt your style to their needs. However, if you receive a letter in old-fashioned pompous 'officialese' it does not mean that you have to respond similarly. Write back in a clear conversational style - show them a good example! So get to know your reader - watch for their reaction.

But beware - sometimes it is tactful to avoid part of the truth, and it may be prudent not to be too blunt. Letters may offend a reader if too clear, concise, simple and direct. On the other hand, excessive brevity could be rude or disturbing.

The key to good letter writing is courtesy.

• Always answer letters promptly.
• Get your correspondent's name correct - with the right spelling.
• Get their titles right.
• Be considerate and sincere.

The five 'Cs'

recognise the importance of the relationship between purpose, reader and language and

• are prepared to be guided by the Five 'Cs' you will have an excellent chance of achieving readability. This is the quality which makes a reader want to go on reading, understanding and being influenced by all that has been written. So:

Be clear. Avoid ambiguities; use correct punctuation; use words tidily; place adjectives and adverbs in the right context.

Be concise. Brevity means selecting and assembling the right words; eliminate 'padding' caused by meaningless and hackneyed cliches, cut out jargon and 'commercialese'!

Be correct. Ensure your facts, figures, data, detail, and all information is correct. In letter construction be sure that grammar, punctuation and especially spelling are correct.

Be complete. Provide all the information/answers to satisfy both the reader and the purpose of the letter. Also, if there are enclosures - enclose them!

Be courteous. Choose and use words to create the right tone which will convey the 'image' to the reader of a warm, helpful, interested human being!

8. Faxes and e-mails

Fax and e-mail are simply different methods of sending the written word. Both are virtually instantaneous - which raises some problems. Both are intensive and generate a level of urgency that a letter falling on your desk does not.

Nevertheless, in spite of urgency do not abandon the letter writing rules that we follow with 'snail mail'.

Fax

To be effective a fax should be short - yards of fax paper are a deterrent to reading. Always head a fax with the subject and the addressee's name, rather like a memo. It is not necessary to set out the name and address at the top left.
The greeting, body of the letter and salutation should follow the usual letter writing rules. However, the fax format does give you the opportunity to practise brevity and to move straight to the point of the communication. Be brief, but not terse, and remain courteous.
The fax format provides an ideal opportunity to cut out all the outdated 'commercialese' so often to be found in business letters.

E-mail

Business communication is about getting your message across clearly and in a professional manner. Writing letters and sending them by e-mail is no different. But people, who are normally competent and confident letter writers somehow find themselves hesitant when it comes to business e-mail. This is probably because it is very hard to find the right tone - it is too easy to drop into the casual conversational mode.

Resist this: write e-mail letters as you would write a normal business letter and then ask yourself: 'How would I feel if I received this message?'

E-mail offers the opportunity for rapid exchange of views and information, rather like a spoken conversation. If this is the case there is little point in formal opening and closing of each exchange. But this does not exempt you from the need to make your language clear and easily understood; in fact more so. For example in international negotiations by e-mail it is vital to be sure that understanding has been accurately created. The e-mail exchange can continue rapidly until both sides are convinced and satisfied that they have reached acceptable agreement.

E-mail may be global but it has not yet broken down international business etiquette barriers. So generally start formally with 'Dear Mr X' which is much better than 'Hi there!' Correct spelling and good grammar are essential - jokes and chatroom shorthand are out. All the rules of good business writing apply; do not drop them simply because the transmission method is so swift. Doing business by e-mail can be a bit impersonal - you need to know your reader exists in the real world! Making contact by phone as well is a good way to build your relationship. Reply to e-mails promptly. A swift 'I'll get back to you' is better than silence.

Remember too that e-mail is not private, at least not when sent in clear. (You may encrypt of course.) Therefore if there is confidential or sensitive material to be transmitted, a private letter may be more suitable. And this is especially important in these days of high security risk and computer fraud. So add confidentiality or security notices to your e-mails: if you are not sure who may read them - be safe rather than sorry.

Do not send large attachments unless you are certain the recipient uses broadband; 'snail mail' may be better if there is time.

Do not send any '.exe' files as attachments unless you are very well-known to the recipient. Any person receiving one of these from a stranger will automatically suspect a virus and be extremely annoyed!

You can place orders, present proposals and finalise contracts via e-mail, but anything requiring a legal signature could still need a follow-up by letter.

There are of course many sorts of firewalls, virus protection programs and defensive setups by providers, but the need to be vigilant and to guard confidentiality is emphatic if you are to operate effectively using this dynamic system.

Formal Business Writing (part 3)

A Guide to Business Writing (continued)

 

5. Write clearly, simply and specifically

 

Here are some common pitfalls to avoid:

• superfluous words
• pompous phrases
• vague, abstract words and phrases
• 'hedging'
• the proximity rule
• misuse of pronouns
• words with several meanings
• double negatives.

Superfluous words

'staff of suitable calibre and quality' (Overemphasis and confusion of meaning.)
'I personally believe...' (Who else believes?)

Another common fault is unnecessary adjectives and adverbs:

true facts (If it is a fact it is true.)
actively investigate (Can you investigate passively?)
active consideration (Can you consider passively?)
quite unique ('Unique' means the only one.)
absolutely impossible ('Impossibility' is absolute.)
an unfilled vacancy (A vacancy is something unfilled!)
I would suggest (If you mean it, why be tentative?)
completely fatal (Can something be half or partially fatal?)

The list is endless! Ruthlessly edit these banalities out of your writing.

Pompous phrases

This form of traditional, pointless jargon is described by the the Oxford Concise Dictionary as 'barbarous or debased language'. Many of the phrases are clichés that we use unthinkingly:

'further to the above' (referring to a heading)
'the aforementioned'
'at this moment in time'
'at the end of the day'
'in the not too distant future'
'a substantial proportion'
'for the reason that'
'taking into consideration'

Again, seek out these and similar ghastly phrases and get them out of your writing.
Vague, abstract words and phrases

Using long-winded phrases leads to vagueness. Be specific in your writing. Do not write:
It was suggested that consideration be given to the possibility of improvement in our facilities for conferences with the object of elimination of noise and provision of adequate ventilation.
if you can write:
We need a better place to meet. This room is noisy and hot.

Use concrete rather than abstract words: they are more easily understandable. A concrete word is something you can see or feel. For example:

• chair
• desk
• computer

An abstract word is not something you can see or feel. They generally represent concepts (an abstract word itself!). For example:

• communication
• democracy
• memory
• facility.

Such 'idea' words need explanations - the more explanations the more complex the idea.

Try to choose words which convey precise ideas to your readers, for example:

Do not write:

transport facilities
educational amenities
communication
research facilities
computing facilities
worker on a temporary basis
in the engineering field
the human factor

if you can write:

trains, cars, lorries
schools, colleges
e-mail, letter, phone call
chemistry laboratory
computers
temporary staff
in engineering
people

The more directly you express yourself the happier your reader will be.

'Hedging'

Words such as 'perhaps', 'probably', 'comparatively', etc. are used by writers to avoid committing themselves. If that is your deliberate intention, then all right.

However, if it is not intended, it destroys conviction. Where these words carry such implications, avoid them.

Avoid words that sit on the fence and 'hedge' the meaning until it has no meaning. In the example below, the italicised words 'hedge':

Additional evidence suggests that the difference in the midrange of the curves may possibly indicate a curve form that our hypothesis may not adequately encompass.

Are you any wiser?

The proximity rule

Keep modifying words or phrases close to the word or phrase they modify, otherwise your meaning will be uncertain. For example:
A discussion was held on overtime working in the office.
What went on in the office - the discussion or the overtime working? Or was the discussion held while the staff were on overtime? Make the meaning quite clear; rewrite the sentence - even if it becomes a bit longer - and use punctuation. For example:
A discussion, on overtime working, was held in the office.

Do not write that
The work area needs cleaning badly.
when you mean
The work area badly needs cleaning.

Misplaced modifiers can also be amusing (but may make you look rather foolish):
We saw a man on a horse with a wooden leg.
The fire was extinguished before any damage was done by the fire brigade.
He told her that he wanted to marry her frequently.

Misuse of pronouns

Be careful not to use a pronoun when you have already used two nouns in that sentence - or sometimes in a preceding sentence. For example:
Mary told Susan she was being promoted.
Who was being promoted?
The car collided with the van at the crossroads. It had to be towed away quickly to avoid a traffic jam.
What had to be towed away?

Words with several meanings

Many words that have two (or more) meanings may leave the reader in doubt about your message. For example:
We dispense with accuracy.
John is aggressive.
It is practically done.

If you are unsure of a word that you feel/know has more than one meaning, look it up in the dictionary! The context is often a clue to the meaning intended.

Double negatives

The Double Negative is further discussed here

Try to phrase your message in a positive way rather than a negative one. Instead of:
a decision should not be delayed
write
a decision should be made

Always try and avoid multiple negatives, such as:
there is no reason to doubt that it is not true
The chances of the reader understanding that sentence as true or not true are about even!

Sometimes we can use a multiple negative to give an extra shade of meaning. For example:
There is no specific reason to doubt their claim, but previous experience . . .

Before allowing this sort of negative construction to stand, make sure that it is really needed, either to make your point or add emphasis.

There are plenty of traps that the unwary writer can fall into. Those mentioned in this chapter are some of the most common. But don't let these pitfalls stop you writing. Just get it down on paper. The later process of editing will correct errors and idiocies.

Formal Business Writing (part 2)

A Guide to Business Writing (Contd.)

All writing should be readable and interesting, and communicate its message clearly and unambiguously. Meet these aims by writing in a good, clear style.

4. Style

There are no hard and fast rules — rules are a substitute for the thought which is essential for improving a writer's style. The most common fault is attempting to impress by style, rather than expressing what you want to say.

Lee Iacocca, the former Chief Executive of Chrysler, was definitely against trying to impress by style. There is a paragraph in his autobiography, which is particularly apt:

'Say it in English, and keep it short. I once read a 15-page paper that was tough to understand. I called in the author and asked him to explain what was in the tome he had written. He did it in two minutes flat. He identified what we were doing wrong, what we could do to fix it, and what he recommended. When he finished I asked him why he didn't write in the paper the way he'd just said it to me. He didn't have an answer. All he said was: 'I was taught that way'.'

Iacocca's wisdom is a guide to all writers: essentially — keep it simple, keep it short. We can train ourselves away from the outmoded fashions of writing that we were schooled into. We can learn to write colloquially and communicate effectively.

Style is not fancy or pompous language added to plain statements of fact. All language has a style. It is created by the words we choose, and the way we structure those words into a sentence.

Main styles of writing

The main styles can be divided into three broad classifications:

• Formal: The newly inaugurated copying system has enjoyed a most favourable reception.
• Friendly: Our new copying system is just great.
• Familiar: Our new copying system has become very popular with the departments that use it.

The more formal the style, the more likely we are to use less familiar words and less simple verb forms — such as the passive voice.

At the other extreme, the familiar style might drop into using some slang and, possibly, phrases in place of complete sentences.

The choice of style is a matter of individual preference, organisational custom and — most importantly — the feelings and expectations of your reader(s). Business readers today, tend to prefer shorter, more easily readable writing; the friendly style of writing is probably best.

Aim for a style that is simple, human and precise. To help you achieve this:

Keep a picture of your main reader in mind — write as if to the individual. This will keep a personal touch in what you say.
If you have problems getting away from the traditional formal report writing style, try to picture your reader(s) in your mind. Think what you would say to them if they were there, with you. Then, write it down. You may have to edit what you have written but you will probably have expressed your thoughts in a clear and simple way.
Do not worry about style while you are writing. Say what you want to say, then sort it out when you review what you have written.

Formal Business Writing

A Guide to Business Writing

"Good business writing is a lot harder than it sounds. For the generation of new executives brought up on mobile phones, and used to communicating by SMS or MMS, it can be particularly daunting." - Sidney Callis.

From the book

Business Writing - A Guide to Doing It Well

by Sidney Callis

 

1. Introduction

The main purpose of any writing is to communicate. To communicate we need words - plain simple words are best. But writing in a business context is special, because it has to do with our livelihood. Unfortunately many of us, when faced with having to do a piece of business writing, behave as if plain straightforward everyday language - a perfectly good means of communicating - ceases to exist. What takes over when we pick up a pen, or start to tap our keyboard, is often a strange mix of pompous and clichéd language. This sort of writing is self-defeating, it violates all the principles of effective communication.

Many people find the actual writing difficult, but this is probably the smallest problem. The really important part of the job is gathering and organising the material. If there is insufficient you tend to 'pad'. If there is too much, then you become overwhelmed by the task of getting it all in; the document becomes unwieldy and probably unreadable. Good business writing demands careful choice of material and its proper organisation.

The important principles are: Clarity - Simplicity - Brevity

If your writing is 'weird and wonderful' it will not be clear, neither will it be simple enough to understand easily. And if you 'pad', brevity,the essence of good writing, will be lost.

The preparatory work, the thinking about the writing, and planning in advance, will make it the easier to actually write and you will be more successful in achieving your objective. Therefore, to communicate effectively in business writing, the main principles of establishing purpose, identifying the readership, writing well and good presentation of the finished product should be observed.

There is no 'best way' and there are few rules to tell anyone how to write. Some advice: 'get on with it, without interruption or delay'. Few letters or reports are perfect at the first attempt, so at this stage do not get sidetracked into rewriting. Do not worry about getting it right. If you are communicating in writing, it first needs to be written!

One of the main principles of any writing is to pay attention to expression, so say it as clearly as you can.

2. Order of writing

You need to decide the right structure to meet the readers' needs, but don't be tempted to start to write in that sequence. That is not the best order in which to do the writing. It is probably better to start with the detail and follow each line of thinking through, from the problem to the solution. This applies to any piece of business writing, from a letter to a a report. It is also valid for literary essays or academic papers. Make it easy for the reader to follow your argument.

Suggested writing sequence for a report, but follow this scheme for any piece of business writing.

• Main sections. Work from the problem, through the methods and findings, to a discussion of those findings. There is no need for rigid scheduling — fit the pieces in their slots in your outline, as you write them; shift them about to get 'conclusions'.
• Recommendations. These arise directly from the conclusions.
• Appendices. Include here all the detailed data referred to in the main sections.
• Preliminaries. These are the miscellaneous items that will introduce the report: table of contents; purpose; terms of reference; methodology; background and so on.
• Summary. This section can only be written when everything else is complete.

3. Getting started

Many people find it difficult to get started on a piece of writing. When faced with a blank sheet of paper, even the most experienced writers can get a mental block.

Here are some ideas to help you get started:

• Let your rough ideas take form in your mind. Often we cannot get started because the thoughts we want to express are not clear in our own mind. Give yourself time to let your ideas 'simmer', (but don't use this as an excuse to keep putting off getting down to writing).
• Talk to other people about your ideas. Discussing your thoughts and plans will often bring out new ideas, and will help you form your own ideas more clearly.
• Write as you think. It is difficult to start writing in a clearly structured way. To get started, just 'dump' all your thoughts down on paper in a totally unstructured way. The important thing is to keep the pen moving and the ideas flowing freely. Offload your thoughts in brief note form so there is not too much to write. Then, go over what you have down on paper. Use it to create an ordered and logical outline structure.
• Write visually. It may be easier to put your thoughts down in the form of diagrams such as flowcharts, sketches or 'mind maps'. Words are not the only way to get your ideas on paper. Go back over your 'visuals' and use them to create an ordered outline structure of what you plan to write.
• Write — don't edit. Grammar, punctuation and spelling are initially not important. Getting ideas down on paper is the first step. Tidy up the writing later.

Use any or all of these ideas. Choose those that best suit what you have to write, your own work style and — most important — the one that gets you started on the writing.

Basic Written English - Part 3

Punctuation or 'stopping' is used by the writer to help the reader to understand the construction and meaning of a passage without undue effort. It is akin to the various signs used by a composer in a piece of music, and is just like the various signs on our roads. Just as we cannot drive safely without following road signs, so we cannot write properly without using the various marks of punctuation. In speech the modulation of the voice, with its rises and falls and pauses and stresses, helps the listener to understand what is being said. In writing, without punctuation even a short sentence may have double meaning:

The boy says the teacher is stupid.

As the sentence stands, the meaning is that the teacher is thought to be stupid. A comma after 'boy' and another after 'teacher' will correct any possible misunderstanding.

The boy, says the teacher, is stupid.

Two little 'marks' on the page give the second example a completely opposite meaning, when compared to the first example. You will see that it is vital to use punctuation correctly.

The full stop [.]

We have already seen that the full stop is used to mark the end of a sentence that is not a question or an exclamation. In theory therefore it should cause us no difficulty. But if we are not careful we can easily let our sentences ramble on, making them difficult to understand. Good writers use neither all long nor all short sentences, but rather a mixture of the two, a long sentence being followed by perhaps two or three short ones. A short sentence would probably contain only one or two finite verbs (verbs with subjects) and a long one would contain three or more finite verbs.

The comma [,]

The comma is probably the most difficult stop in punctuation, mainly because it has many functions or uses. Its main uses are as follows:

1. To separate items in a list of more than two:

He plays football, rugby, tennis and squash.
She has homes in England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland.
(Some writers would also put a comma before the 'and' in each sentence. Usually this is simply a matter of personal preference.)

2. To mark off a phrase or clause at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence:

Shortly after he retired, his wife went back to work.
Women, generally speaking, are not as tall as men.

3. To mark off single words such as 'however' and 'therefore':

However, I do not like him.
I am certain, therefore, that he is guilty.

4. To separate adjectives coming before a noun:

A noisy, overcrowded classroom.
A quiet, pleasant boy.
But the comma is omitted where the second adjective has almost become part of the noun itself:

A cheerful old gentleman.

5. To avoid ambiguity, or momentary misunderstanding. We have already looked at one example. Here are two more:

I did not do it, because I like him.
Further, crime must be seen not to pay.

The semicolon [;]

It is a pity that the semicolon is not used these days as much as it used to be, even a few years ago. It indicates a longer pause than the comma but a shorter one than the full stop, and is particularly useful before words like 'then', 'however', 'therefore' and 'nevertheless' when they are used to join two sentences to make a single sentence:

I went to the match; then I went for a drink.
I do not agree; however there is no point in arguing.

To use commas here would be wrong. 'Then' and 'however' are adverbs, not conjunctions, and they must not be used on their own to join sentences together.

The semicolon is also useful between two sentences to add emphasis to the second:

He was found guilty; but I think he was innocent.
I am in charge; and I always will be.

The colon [:]

The main use of the colon is as an introducer of, for example, a list of items:

She wants three things: hard work, loyalty and efficiency.
The following were there: Smith, Weston and Jones.

It is also often used in articles such as this one to introduce examples.

The question mark [?]

The question mark stands at the end of a 'direct' question (one that calls for an answer):

How old are you?
Where are you going?

It is important to note the difference between the direct question that requires a question mark and the indirect question that does not. In the following sentences the questions are indirect (in reported speech) and do not require question marks:

She asked who I was.
He wanted to know where I was going.
(Reported speech is when someone (the writer or speaker) tells someone else (the reader or listener) what was said.)

The exclamation mark [!]

We have already seen that the exclamation mark is used at the end of an exclamatory sentence, and with single-word exclamations (interjections) such as Bravo! and Oh! Sometimes the exclamation mark with single-word exclamations is delayed until the end of the sentence:

Ah, you caught him!
Alas, I missed her!

The exclamation mark may be legitimately used to express surprise or disgust, but we should use it sparingly if we are merely emphasising that we are being clever or amusing. Excessive use of the exclamation mark in this way can be very tiresome to the reader, and the use of double or treble marks (!! or !!!) is as ugly as it is wrong.

Brackets and dashes [( )] [-] [—]

Brackets always go in pairs and are used within a sentence to enclose a word, phrase or clause that supplies additional information or comment:

We always have been (and always will be) against it.
I am (I think) the youngest member.

They are also used to enclose references and dates:

In his best year (1962) he wrote three plays.
This suggests a plural (see page 61).

Only rarely should a whole sentence be placed in brackets, and we must then make sure that the full stop is placed before (and not after) the second bracket:

(It could be argued, of course, that he was insane.)

A single dash is used to mark a pause for effect, or a hesitation in speech:

He was found - alive.
Tell me why - why did you do it?

Double dashes are used to indicate an aside or a parenthesis:

We helped them — some would say hindered them — in their work.
We — the boys and I — will arrive tomorrow.

The Apostrophe [']

We use an apostrophe to show that we have missed out a letter or two; this is called 'the apostrophe of omission'. For example, we can shorten 'have not' to 'haven't', and the apostrophe shows that we have missed out an 'o'. In informal writing there are many instances where we can use the apostrophe of omission:

can not = can't
will not = won't
shall not = shan't
it will = it'll
they will = they'll
I would = I'd

Sometimes it is even possible to get two apostrophes into one word:

I would have = I'd've

It is essential that these contractions are only used in speech and recorded speech. They should never be used in more formal situations, whether in spoken or written English.

We also use the apostrophe to show possession (that something belongs to someone or something):

The girl's coat = the coat of the girl (one girl — singular)
The book's cover = the cover of the book (one book)

The men's books = the books of the men (more than one man — plural)
The children's feet = the feet of the children (more than one child)
The boys' classroom = the classroom of the boys (more than one boy)
The girls' cloakroom = the cloakroom of the girls (more than one girl)

From the above we should note that:

With a singular noun an apostrophe and an 's' are added to the basic form.
With a plural noun, the apostrophe on its own is added if the plural ends in 's' (as most nouns do).
Where a plural noun does not end in 's' (such as 'men', children in the examples) an apostrophe and an 's' are added to the plural form.

It is important to remember that if a singular noun ends in 's' we must still add
an apostrophe and an 's' to form the possessive:

James's house
Thomas's job
The boss's office

We must never use an apostrophe in simple plurals of words that are not possessive:

Videos for sale (not Video's)
1000s of bargains (not 1000's)
The 1960s (not 1960's)

We must also be careful not to use an apostrophe with the possessive pronouns:

hers, his, ours, its, yours, theirs

The hyphen [-]

The main problem regarding the use of the hyphen is that there are no fixed rules to guide us. There are however certain broad principles that most authorities accept, even though they do not always follow them in their own writing. These principles are as follows:

The hyphen joins together two or more words to make a single word with its own meaning. The compound may be for a particular purpose (eg 'giant-sized ego') or it may be permanent (as 'motor-car' was intended to be all those years ago).

A familiar hyphenated word should be converted into an unhyphenated single word unless to do so would result in awkwardness of spelling or ambiguity. For example, 'e-mail' easily converts to 'email', but 'cross-stitch' (because of the resultant 'sss') does not.

The hyphen should be used only when it is necessary as an aid to being understood. From this, it follows that if the hyphen is not necessary for that purpose it should not be used.

If we bear these principles in mind we can safely say that hyphens should normally be used:

To avoid ambiguity.

There are obvious differences in meaning between
'Twenty three-year-old horses',
'Twenty-three year-old horses' and
Twenty-three-year-old horses'.

There is also a difference between
'Fresh-cream cakes' and
'Fresh cream-cakes'.

To distinguish between words that begin with 're' and those that are prefixed by 're' (meaning once again). Thus, for example:

'reform' (abolish etc) and 're-form' (form again)
'resign' (give up employment etc) and 're-sign' (sign again)

In compound adjectives where the compound is used before (but not after) its noun, such as, 'piping-hot meal', 'up-to-date records', 'made-up story'.

Where more than one word follows the prefix 'ex' (meaning former). It does not matter whether we write 'ex-footballer' or 'ex footballer',for example, where only a single word follows the 'ex'. But 'ex'-fighter pilot', for example, could be a pilot who used to be a fighter. The solution is to hyphenate the second and third words following the 'ex' (ex fighter-pilot) or perhaps to leave the hyphen out altogether(ex fighter pilot).

Hyphens should not normally be used:

In compound adjectives where the compound is used after (not before) its noun, such as 'the meal was piping hot', 'the records are up to date', 'the story is made up'.

Where compound nouns (consisting of a noun qualified by a noun used as an adjective) are used as simple nouns following the verb:

The boy wants to be a train driver.
I am going to see the house agent.

In the first example the compound noun is 'train driver' (with 'train' used as an adjective) and in the second it is 'house agent' (with 'house' used as an adjective).

There is no reason at all why these compounds (and countless others) should be given hyphens when they are used as simple nouns following the verb. (When they are used as adjectives - not nouns - they may well require hyphens eg 'A train-driver vacancy', 'A house-agent advert'.)

Where the first word of any compound adjective is an 'ly' adverb, as in for example, 'A truly magnificent performance' or 'A richly deserved prize'. If the first word is an adverb that does not end in 'ly' (such as 'very' or 'little') the hyphen should still not be used unless the adverb might otherwise be mistaken for the adjective with the same spelling:

A very pretty lady but A little-known actor

In the first example 'very' cannot be mistaken for the adjective 'very' (as in 'the very thought of you') and the hyphen is not necessary. In the second example 'little' could be mistaken for the adjective 'little' (A little actor who is known) and the hyphen is essential.

Other one-off situations will frequently arise, and we must then decide for ourselves whether to hyphenate or not. It is a fact that there are many more errors committed by putting hyphens in when they are not needed than there are by omitting them when they are necessary as an aid to being understood.

The dictionaries are there to help us with hyphens, if we are not sure, but we should be aware that their recommendations often differ from dictionary to dictionary.

Postscript (PS)

You have seen here all the pieces that go to make up how we communicate with others. But why do we need to be able to write basic English? Why could we not just write anything that comes into our heads using any spelling and any punctuation? It is because we want to be able to make others understand what we want them to understand. Problems occur when people misunderstand others. When we speak to someone we have the intonation and inflection of our voice to help; we have the sound of the words and the shape of the mouth; and we have body language: all of which help make clear what we are trying to say. But when we write, we have none of these things; we have only words and punctuation.

We do not need to be able to write like a famous author or poet, but we all need to be able to write basic English; we all need to be able to make ourselves understood in speech and in writing.

In this article we have briefly looked at the individual elements that collectively make up what we have termed 'Basic written English' and we hope that these notes will encourage you to study the grammar and usage of the English language in more detail. We have already mentioned our president's book 'The Queen's English and How to Use It'; it deals much more fully with every aspect of our language than an article such as this one ever could.

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